Thematic land-cover map assimilation and synthesis: the case of locating potential bioenergy feedstock in eastern Ontario,Canada

Insufficient spatial coverage of existing land-cover data is a common limitation to timely and effective spatial analysis. Achieving spatial completeness of land-cover data is the most challenging for large study areas which straddle ecological or administrative boundaries, and where individuals and agencies lack access to, and the means to process, raw data from which to derive spatially complete land-cover maps. In many cases, various sources of secondary data are available, so that land-cover map assimilation and synthesis can resolve this research problem. The following paper develops a reliable and repeatable framework for assimilating and synthesizing pre-classified data sets. Assimilation is achieved through data reformatting and map legend reconciliation in the context of a specific application. Individual maps are assessed for accuracy at various geographic scales and levels of thematic precision, with an emphasis on the ‘area of overlap’, in order to extract information that guides the synthesis process. The quality of the synthesized land-cover data set is evaluated using advanced accuracy assessment methods, including a measure describing the ‘magnitude of disagreement’. This method is applied to derive a seamless thematic map of the land cover of eastern Ontario from two disparate map series. The importance of assessing data quality throughout the process using multiple reference data sets is highlighted, and limitations of the method are discussed.     

融合多源数字信息的流域水系提取方法研究

由于DEM数据不包括河流、湖泊(水库)及流域边界和堤坝等信息,因此常规仅依靠DEM提取水系的方法不能反映平坦区域及受人类影响强烈区域水系的真实特征。该文建立了融合DEM、河流、湖泊水库、流域边界和堤坝等多源数字信息的流域水系提取方法,对多源信息进行栅格化,采用所提出的高程-距离函数对DEM进行校正,使得提取的数字水系与实际水系精确拟合。将该方法应用于山区太湖西苕溪流域老石坎水库及其上游集水区和平原丘陵分布区的淮河史灌河蒋家集站、梅山、鲇鱼山水库区间流域,提取的河网结构与地图信息拟合较好。     

Early Instruction in Geography: An Exploration in the Ecology of Kindergarten and First-Grade Geography Education

Abstract

Student drawn maps have been relatively neglected as an evaluation tool, despite their potential utility for assessing geographic knowledge. Comparison of students' sketch maps at the beginning and end of the year can inform the teacher about how students' representations of the world change over the course of instruction. Used as a pretest, they can be used to diagnose areas of strength and weakness within a class; as a posttest they can be used to assess students' achievement and the effectiveness of instruction. In this paper we provide an easy method for sorting and summarizing sketch map data, which is illustrated using maps collected from two sixth grade classes. We also outline a framework to guide teachers in generating questions to ask about their own students' maps.     

Development of a technique to decompose heterogeneous mapping units in a categorical map of the biotic environment using correlated categorical data

In this article a technique is presented to estimate the proportions of different map categories in a series of heterogeneous mapping units, using information on the degree of spatial correlation with other categorical data. The technique has been applied to decompose ecotope complexes in a categorical map of the biotic environment in Flanders, using secondary information on land cover and soil type. Because the conditional probability of an ecotope occurring given a certain soil type depends on the frequency with which the ecotope occurs in an area, determining the probability of occurrence of an ecotope from the conditional probabilities can lead to predictions that contradict prior knowledge about the composition of the different mapping units. A measure expressing the affinity of an ecotope for a soil type is proposed and is used as an alternative to conditional probability in the estimation procedure. The proposed method has been tested in a study area for which detailed field observations were collected, and proves to work well if reliable a priori knowledge about the composition of complex mapping units is available.     

Large-scale land cover mapping with the integration of multi-source information based on the Dempster–Shafer theory

Land cover type is a crucial parameter that is required for various land surface models that simulate water and carbon cycles, ecosystem dynamics, and climate change. Many land use/land cover maps used in recent years have been derived from field investigations and remote-sensing observations. However, no land cover map that is derived from a single source (such as satellite observation) properly meets the needs of land surface simulation in China. This article presents a decision-fuse method to produce a higher-accuracy land cover map by combining multi-source local data based on the Dempster–Shafer (D–S) evidence theory. A practical evidence generation scheme was used to integrate multi-source land cover classification information. The basic probability values of the input data were obtained from literature reviews and expert knowledge. A Multi-source Integrated Chinese Land Cover (MICLCover) map was generated by combining multi-source land cover/land use classification maps including a 1:1,000,000 vegetation map, a 1:100,000 land use map for the year 2000, a 1:1,000,000 swamp-wetland map, a glacier map, and a Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer land cover map for China in 2001 (MODIS2001). The merit of this new map is that it uses a common classification system (the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) land cover classification system), and it has a unified 1 km resolution. The accuracy of the new map was validated by a hybrid procedure. The validation results show great improvement in accuracy for the MICLCover map. The local-scale visual comparison validations for three regions show that the MICLCover map provides more spatial details on land cover at the local scale compared with other popular land cover products. The improvement in accuracy is true for all classes but particularly for cropland, urban, glacier, wetland, and water body classes. Validation by comparison with the China Forestry Scientific Data Center (CFSDC)–Forest Inventory Data (FID) data shows that overall forest accuracies in five provinces increased to between 42.19% and 88.65% for our MICLCover map, while those of the MODIS2001 map increased between 27.77% and 77.89%. The validation all over China shows that the overall accuracy of the MICLCover map is 71%, which is higher than the accuracies of other land cover maps. This map therefore can be used as an important input for land surface models of China. It has the potential to improve the modeling accuracy of land surface processes as well as to support other aspects of scientific land surface investigations in China.     

Remote sensing mapping of the regeneration of coastal natural habitats in Singapore: Implications for marine conservation in tropical cities

Rapid urbanization has resulted in the loss of coastal and marine habitats in cities worldwide. The effective conservation of urban coastal ecosystems requires detailed knowledge of their spatial distribution, necessitating high-resolution mapping. Our study produces a high-resolution coastal and marine habitat map and shoreline map for the tropical city-state of Singapore created through pixel-based supervised classification of satellite imagery, bathymetry data and expert ground knowledge. These maps can be used as a base reference for multiple applications including ecological research, conservation and urban planning. They also help identifiy trends in the extent of key coastal habitats, providing insight into their differing levels of vulnerability to loss and potential for restoration to ensure long-term resilience. The method used for mapping shoreline typologies and resulting insights gained, can guide other rapidly urbanizing coastal cities on strategies to assemble useful spatial knowledge for effective conservation of their urban coastal ecosystems.     

地图质量可拓综合评价模型

可拓学是解决矛盾问题的新兴交叉学科,理论支柱是物元理论和可拓集合。它以物元为基本元,通过物元变换来建立物元模型,化矛盾问题为相容问题。基于可拓论探讨了地图质量的可拓综合评价新模型,即通过构造各评定等级的经典域和全体等级的节域物元矩阵,计算待评物元与各评定等级之间的关联度,判定对各评定等级的符合程度而作出综合评定。文中给出了具体评价流程,并应用于实际地图的质量综合评价,结果同其它方法进行了对比,取得了较好的结果。     

Generation of schematic network maps with automated detection and enlargement of congested areas

Nowadays, the design of the London Tube map (as a kind of schematic map) has been popularly adopted for transport network maps worldwide because of its great clarity of representation. In such types of map, the shape of the network is simplified and the topology between lines is preserved while the congested areas are enlarged to a desirable scale. Efforts have also been made to automate the production of such maps. However, to our best knowledge, no existing methods have explicitly taken into consideration the automated enlargement of congested areas. As such an enlargement is vital to the improvement of clarity, this paper proposes a new automated method to generate schematic network maps, consisting of (a) automated detection of congested areas, (b) automated enlargement of congested areas to a desirable scale and (c) automated generation of the schematic representation of the deformed network maps using a stroke-based approach. The new method has been tested with two real-life network data sets, i.e. the London Tube and Hong Kong metro data sets, and evaluated by fractal analysis and experimental studies. The results of the evaluation indicate that the new method is able to automatically generate the schematic maps with improved clarity and aesthetics.     

Representation of Ecological Regions by Protected Areas at the Global Scale

Over the past 30 years, conservationists have sought ways to assess the quality of coverage provided by protected areas and to guide future site selection. One scheme among these addresses the degree to which areas protected for environmental conservation are representative of the ecological regions of a specified area. This has already been attempted at the scale of countries and regions. With the recent publication of the World Database of Protected Areas, quantitative analysis of representativeness at the global scale is finally feasible. We use GIS technology to overlay a map of ecological regions with a map of protected areas in order to identify biomes and geographic realms that are "under-represented" and "well represented" by protected areas. The results confirm an overemphasis on marginal land and dramatic landscapes, and the relative neglect of biomes with strong, alternative economic uses. Smaller biomes are typically better protected, as are those that have been targeted by conservation campaigns. Industrialized lifestyles and population pressure also appear to act as stimuli to protection. Our discussion suggests that analyses of patterns of representation are critical, but "over-representing" certain ecosystems—particularly those that contain high levels of biodiversity or are most threatened—should not be discounted as a conservation strategy.     

Placing dots in dot maps

Dot mapping is a cartographic representation method to visualise discrete absolute values and their spatial distribution. To achieve this, dots equal in size and represented value are used. According to the dot value, a certain number of dots are used to depict a data value. These dots usually form dot clusters. The data value needs to be rounded to a multiple of the dot value. It is possible to roughly determine the visualised data value by counting the dots and multiplying this number with the dot value. As there are many parameters – dot size, dot value, map scale – to consider when designing a dot map, the manual way is very complex and time consuming. This paper presents a method to automatically create a dot representation of a dot map from given statistical data that needs no cartographic expertise. The dot representation may be combined with other elements, such as a topographic background, to form a complete map. So the algorithm can easily be integrated into the map design process. The paper refines the basic approach of automated dot mapping published earlier. The dot placement and arrangement have been improved compared to the basic method.     

Computation and visualisation of the accuracy of old maps using differential distortion analysis

The accuracy of old maps can hold interesting historical information, and is therefore studied using distortion analysis methods. These methods start from a set of ground control points that are identified both on the old map and on a modern reference map or globe, and conclude with techniques that compute and visualise distortion. Such techniques have advanced over the years, but leave room for improvement, as the current ones result in approximate values and a coarse spatial resolution. We propose a more elegant and more accurate way to compute distortion of old maps by translating the technique of differential distortion analysis, used in map projection theory, to the setting where an old map and a reference map are directly compared. This enables the application of various useful distortion metrics to the study of old maps, such as the area scale factor, the maximum angular distortion and the Tissot indicatrices. As such a technique is always embedded in a full distortion analysis method we start by putting forward an optimal analysis method for a general-purpose study, which then serves as the foundation for the development of our technique. Thereto, we discuss the structure of distortion analysis methods and the various options available for every step of the process, including the different settings in which the old map can be compared to its modern counterpart, the techniques that can be used to interpolate between both, and the techniques available to compute and visualise the distortion. We conclude by applying our general-purpose method, including the differential distortion analysis technique, to an example map also used in other literature.     

2008年以来地图学眼动与视觉认知研究新进展

地图是人类日常生活中不可或缺的工具。地图认知作为研究人对地图的感知、学习、记忆、推理和决策的科学,一直以来是地图学基础理论的重要内容。作为地图认知研究的核心,近年来地图视觉认知在相关学科（如心理学、认知科学和计算机视觉）和新的研究手段（如眼动跟踪、脑电和核磁）的促进下取得了一系列新的研究成果。尤其是眼动跟踪方法作为地图视觉认知研究的重要手段之一,越来越受到研究者的关注,为地图视觉认知研究的定量化、实用化提供了有力支撑。本文系统地梳理了2008年以来眼动跟踪方法在地图视觉认知研究中取得的新进展,并将其归纳为6个发展趋势,分别包括：① 刺激材料：从静态地图到动态交互地图;② 研究范围：从地图认知到地图空间认知;③ 实验环境：从实验室环境到真实环境;④ 地图维度：从二维地图到三维地图;⑤ 个体差异：从单一维度到多维度;⑥ 研究目的：从规律探究到实践应用。本文最后总结了未来研究面临的挑战、难点和可能的解决方法,期望能在地图视觉认知研究中起到抛砖引玉的作用。     

Remote sensing and GIS-based regional geomorphological mapping—a tool for land use planning in developing countries

Land use planning and necessary supporting data are crucial to developing countries that are usually under severe environmental and demographic strains. Approaches and methods to map the variability of natural resources are important tools to properly guide spatial planning. In this paper, we describe a method to quickly map terrain at reconnaissance (1:250,000) and semi-detailed (1:50,000) levels. This method can be utilized as a basis for further land evaluation and land use planning in large territories. The approach was tested in the state of Michoacan, central-western Mexico, currently undergoing rapid deforestation and subsequent land degradation.Results at the reconnaissance level describe the geographic distribution of major landforms and dominant land cover, and provide a synoptic inventory of natural resources. Results at the semi-detailed level indicate how to nest individual landforms to major units and how they can be used to run procedures for land evaluation. If combined with appropriate socioeconomic data, governmental guidelines for land use planning can be formulated on the basis of reconnaissance and semi-detailed terrain analysis.     

三峡库区土地资源的多源信息综合制图法

本方法用来编制1:10万长江三峡库区土地资源评价图,以卫星数据计算机监督分类为基础,配合以野外调查和遥感、非遥感的资料。把这些资料作为多源信息,加以综合后,编制出的土地资源评价图,经实地校核,与SPOT卫星像片、卫星数据计算机监督分类图相套合,准确率分别为88,91,93(％)。     

Graphical design of world map projections

The design of new map projections has up until now required mathematical and cartographic expertise that has limited this activity to a small group of specialists. This article introduces the background mathematics for a software-based method that enables cartographers to easily design new small-scale world map projections. The software is usable even by those without mathematical expertise. A new projection is designed interactively in an iterative process that allows the designer to graphically and numerically assess the graticule, the representation of the continents, and the distortion properties of the new projection. The method has been implemented in Flex Projector, a free and open-source application enabling users to quickly create new map projections and modify existing projections. We also introduce new tools that help evaluate the distortion properties of projections, namely a configurable acceptance index to assess areal and angular distortion, a derived acceptance visualization, and interactive profiles through the distortion space of a projection. To illustrate the proposed method, a new projection, the Cropped Ginzburg VIII projection, is presented.     

Further developments of a fuzzy set map comparison approach

Fuzzy set map comparison offers a novel approach to map comparison.The approach is specifically aimed at categorical raster maps and applies fuzzy set techniques, accounting for fuzziness of location and fuzziness of category, to create a similarity map as well as an overall similarity statistic: the Fuzzy Kappa. To date, the calculation of the Fuzzy Kappa (or K-fuzzy) has not been formally derived, and the documented procedure was only valid for cases without fuzziness of category. Furthermore, it required an infinitely large, edgeless map. This paper presents the full derivation of the Fuzzy Kappa; the method is now valid for comparisons considering fuzziness of both location and category and does not require further assumptions. This theoretical completion opens opportunities for use of the technique that surpass the original intentions. In particular, the categorical similarity matrix can be applied to highlight or disregard differences pertaining to selected categories or groups of categories and to distinguish between differences due to omission and commission.     

旅游者行为规律与旅游地图编制关系的探讨

旅游者行为规律是旅游地理研究的一个方面,行,吃,住,游,娱,购行为是旅游者空间行为的重要方面,它与旅游地图有着双向导的密切关系,是旅游地图的主要内涵。旅游实施行为指导旅游地图编制,旅游地图为旅游者引导旅游实施行为,为其提供服务。因此,研究旅游者行为规律对旅游地图编制和产品开发有着重要意义。     

Qualitative satellite image analysis: Mapping spatial distribution of farming types in Ethiopia

Satellite images have enormous potential for qualitative land use analysis. This paper presents empirical results that demonstrate how normally invisible dimensions produced by land use can be identified by enriching satellite data with qualitative information from field studies.Land use can be defined as the intentional use of a specific piece of land resulting in patterns of ecological responses that are visible in the land cover and landscape. Responses to land use often result in a heterogeneous combination of reflectance in satellite images. Statistical methods used in the classification of satellite imagery are limited in their capacity to handle categories consisting of heterogeneous combinations of spectral values. To overcome this limitation, a contextual post-classification method has been used to map land cover configurations as related to different agricultural practices in the district of Sodo, Ethiopia.The results show that it is possible to map socio-spatial distribution of different agricultural and socioeconomic practices on a regional level by combining field observations and spatial contextual information. The empirical findings show local agricultural activity variations in cash crop production and subsistence agriculture in the Sodo district of Ethiopia.     

基于层次格网索引的图幅接边处等高线高程错误识别和自动修正研究

等高线蕴含的历史高程信息可有效延长地形研究的时间序列,有利于深入挖掘地形变化长期规律,然而,图幅接边处的高程属性错误降低了等高线的数据质量,制约着等高线高程信息的实际应用。针对这一问题,该文提出一种基于层次格网索引的图幅接边处等高线高程错误识别和自动修正方法:首先,将层次格网索引与方向性二邻域算法相结合,以减少数据重复计算;然后,利用等高线空间位置标签及快速排序算法构建强空间位置关系,解决图幅接边处等高线匹配的准确性问题;最后,以高程冲突位点为驱动因子进行逻辑判断,实现等高线高程错误的识别及自动修正。实验结果表明:该方法运算效率较未进行效率优化时提高了203倍,接边处等高线高程错误识别与修正精度的最大值分别达97.71%和91.40%;相较于现有方法,该方法在精度和效率方面表现更佳,对区域性错误和变形等高线具有更高的适用性。     

泾河流域农业旱灾风险定量评估及其空间特征

泾河流域是农业旱灾的多发地区,但是对该地农业旱灾的发生规律、旱灾影响及旱灾恢复和准备措施方面开展的研究还较少。本文根据自然灾害风险评估的理论框架,建立了1km栅格精度的泾河流域农业旱灾风险空间评估模型,并对农业旱灾致灾因子危险性及农业承险体脆弱性进行评估,最后综合评估该地区农业旱灾风险。在此基础上,分析研究区农业旱灾危险性、承险体脆弱性及风险的空间特征。本研究采用Z指数方法评估泾河流域农业旱灾致灾因子的强度,选取农作物生长季缺水率、土壤有效含水量、有效灌溉面积比以及坡度等4个指标评估研究区1km空间尺度的农业旱灾脆弱性。农业旱灾风险综合评估的结果表明,泾河流域农业旱灾风险的高风险区位于该地区北部,低风险区位于该地区南部,且不同等级风险区呈现出自东向西、自南向北逐渐降低的总体趋势,但不同等级风险区呈现间隔分布的趋势。