云闪放电对云内电荷和电位分布影响的数值模拟

我们应用改进的随机闪电参数化方案,对两次雷暴的起、放电过程进行了二维125 m和250 m分辨率云闪模拟试验,分析表明高分辨率模拟的云闪通道几何结构、延伸范围和最大垂直电场变化等特征与观测结果更为一致,并且揭示了云闪放电重新配置云内电荷分布和空间电荷中和过程的一种新的物理图像：(1) 云闪的直接物理效应是在已有的空间电荷区内沿着放电通道沉积异极性电荷、形成复杂的空间电荷分布,有效地导致云中电位和场强绝对值及静电场能量剧烈下降,使放电终止.其中：放电后在闪电通道经过主要区域,电位降到±30 MV之间,垂直电场强度也降到±20 kV·m-1之间,一次正或负云闪估计消耗掉107～1010 J静电能;(2) 云中电荷中和不是正、负空间电荷简单地直接相互抵消的瞬态过程,而是广泛分布的云中空间电荷与通道沉积的异极性电荷通过湍流交换、平流输送、重力沉降以及起电等多种因素逐渐混合并部分被中和的一个后续慢过程,其弛豫时间典型值在14～44 s之间,在此期间通道感应电荷总量下降到50%以下.并残余部分电荷参与后续放电前高空间电荷密度和强电场的重建过程.     

不同非感应起电及感应起电参数化方案对青海东部一次雷暴云电荷结构影响的数值模拟研究

本研究利用加入起电、放电参数化方案的数值模式（Weather Research and Forecasting Model（Version 3.7.1）,WRF3.7.1_ELEC）,通过设计五组不同非感应起电及感应起电参数化方案敏感性试验,对发生在青藏高原东北部青海大通地区的一次雷暴过程进行模拟研究,对比分析了不同非感应起电机制及感应起电机制对雷暴云电荷结构的影响.结果表明：在雷暴云发展旺盛阶段,Saunders（S91）、Riming Rate（RR）、和Saunders和Peck（SP98）三种非感应起电方案模拟的雷暴云最低层均为负电荷区,而混合方案（Brooks and SP98,BSP）模拟的雷暴云最低层为正电荷区,主电荷区自下而上为"+-+-"排列的四层电荷结构.与甚高频辐射源定位法推算的结果对比,BSP方案模拟的本次高原雷暴云电荷结构更接近实际情况;几种不同非感应起电方案模拟的主电荷区外围与主电荷区电荷结构不同,说明在雷暴发展的不同阶段雷暴云的电荷结构是不同的;几种非感应起电方案模拟的电荷结构不尽相同,主要是由于霰、冰和雪粒子在不同高度所带电荷的极性及电量的大小不同,霰粒子的电荷密度对低层的影响较大,冰粒子和雪粒子的电荷密度对中上层的影响较大;加入感应起电机制后,雷暴云电荷结构分布几乎没有变化,但能使雷暴云发展旺盛阶段低层和中层的正负电荷区电荷密度有所加强.     

雷暴云内闪电双层、分枝结构的数值模拟

试验了一种逃逸启动、双向随机发展的放电参数化改进方案, 并进行了12.5 m的高分辨率、二维雷暴云数值模拟试验, 模拟再现的雷暴云内闪电特征在通道扩展范围和双层、分枝结构以及与位势阱位置的相互配合等方面与实际VHF源定位观测资料分析结果是一致的. 进一步发现: (1) 闪电在雷暴云内相邻的正、负电荷区边界附近触发后, 负先导向正电荷区发展、正先导向负电荷区发展. 存在正负两种极性的云闪, 他们的极性由云中相邻正、负电荷累积区位置的上下配置决定. (2) 电荷累积区的空间分布制约着闪电的空间范围. 云闪几乎遍及其所传播的电荷堆, 遭遇到局域性、与通道极性相同的电荷堆时, 通道将转向、绕开该电荷堆. (3) 电位的空间分布形态同样制约着闪电通道传播方向和几何结构: 先导通道进入正或负位势阱之前沿着最大电位梯度方向传播; 当先导通道穿过它们的中心之后通道更趋于电位变化缓慢的地方发展. (4) 云闪通道在穿过电荷累积区中心以前, 有较好的分形特征, 幂指数约为1.45; 而其后向低电荷浓度地区延伸时, 幂指数随着半径增加而减小. (5) 放电结束后通道感应生成的异极性电荷沉积在正、负先导通道经过的区域, 形成新的、复杂的云内电荷空间分布, 位势极值可由200下降到20 MV.     

巨凝结核对冰雹云降水结构影响的数值模拟研究

利用RAMS数值模式,研究了巨凝结核数浓度改变对半干旱地区春季冰雹云降水特征的影响,研究显示巨核浓度改变对冰雹云中微物理过程及地面降水都有重要影响.累积带对冰雹生成有重要贡献.巨核数浓度增加时,冰雹云中冰雹混合比含量及其云中水平覆盖面积增加;云中过冷雨水和大云滴生成的过冷云水增加,冻结作用增强;地面降雨量增加但降雹量减少;总的地面累积降水量增加但累积冰相降水量减小.对降水的作用在污染云中要比清洁云中明显.地面流场分布随着巨核数浓度的改变而不同.在不同背景气溶胶下,春季冰雹云的判别指标不同于夏季冰雹云.     

北京地区闪电活动与气溶胶浓度的关系研究

基于2015—2017年北京闪电定位网(BLNET)总闪资料与35个自动空气质量监测站PM2.5数据,分析了北京地区(39.5°N—41.0°N,115.0°E—117.5°E)夏季(6—8月)闪电活动与PM2.5的时空分布特征,同时针对117次雷暴天气,探讨了气溶胶浓度变化对闪电活动的可能影响.结果表明:PM2.5浓度及总闪密度均呈现自西北向东南升高的空间分布特征.闪电峰值在污染背景下出现的时间(19∶00LT)晚于清洁背景下(15∶00LT)约4h,且总闪百分比(～20%)可达清洁背景下(～9%)的两倍.对雷暴前1～4h的PM2.5浓度与时间窗(12∶00—22∶00LT)内总闪数目的中位数进行相关分析,发现PM2.5浓度低于130μg·m-3时,PM2.5与总闪数存在明显正相关,此时气溶胶可能通过影响云微物理过程进而影响雷暴的对流发展,增强闪电活动;PM2.5大于150μg·m-3时,总闪数随PM2.5浓度的增加呈减少趋势,可能的原因是高气溶胶浓度下地面太阳辐射显著下降,对流活动受到抑制,导致闪电活动减少.当PM2.5浓度在130～150μg·m-3时,两者关系不明显.     

强雷暴中正地闪发生的条件

为了进一步认识强雷暴中正地闪偏多的原因,本文利用三维雷暴云动力-电耦合数值模式,通过模拟一次强雷暴过程,讨论了正地闪频发需要的条件.结果表明,云闪的发生需要较强的上升气流,而正地闪的发生不仅需要更强的上升气流,还需要云低层存在强的下沉气流,即正地闪发生在强雷暴云成熟阶段后期,对应固态降水强度最大时段.此时,云内主上升气流区内的各电荷区被强上升气流抬升,短暂地呈现反三极性结构,非感应起电机制作用使大量的霰粒子带正电荷,形成了中部电荷密度较大、范围较深厚的正电荷区.而下沉气流区比上升气流区电荷结构更复杂,呈正、负交替的多层结构.由于雷暴云上部负电荷区中部分带负电荷的霰和雹粒子被下沉气流输送到低层,及低层区域感应起电机制的共同作用,使上升气流区外围的对流降水区中的霰和雹粒带上负电荷,在近地面形成一个较强的、范围较大的负电荷区.强雷暴云中下部存在的这个偶极性电荷结构为正地闪的发生提供了有利条件.正地闪发生阶段对应着上升气流、雹粒子体积和总闪的快速增强阶段.因此,强雷暴中正地闪的发生可作为雷暴强度及冰雹形成的一个指示因子.     

积云模式中上行地闪的参数化方案及起始有利云内环境特征的探讨

上行地闪是一种始发于超高建筑物(高度至少在100m以上)顶端的大气放电现象,目前对其的认知主要通过地面观测,而相应的理论模式研究较为缺乏.本文在已有的双向先导随机模型的基础上,创建上行地闪随机放电参数化方案,并耦合到雷暴云起、放电模式中,进行了二维高分辨率上行地闪放电的模拟实验,得到的上行闪电与观测结果具有较好的一致性.通过分析雷暴云电荷结构给出了常规地闪起始的有利云内环境特征,并分析了正、负上行地闪一些特征的异同,结果表明:模拟得到的上行正地闪多为诱导触发的上行地闪,通常是三极电荷结构下次正电荷区与地面之间的一种放电现象,前次云闪过程对空间环境电场的影响为其起始提供了有利条件,整个放电过程延伸范围有限、分叉少、放电不充分;上行负地闪多为偶极电荷结构中主负电荷区与地面之间的放电过程,温度层结的高度低以及降水粒子的下沉使电荷区高度降低是其起始的根本原因,上行负地闪发展旺盛,分支较多;诱导触发的上行地闪主要发生于雷暴成熟期,而自行触发的上行地闪则更容易在雷暴消散期起始.     

沿海地区一次多单体雷暴电荷结构时空演变

利用闪电放电辐射源三维时空分布测量,分析了山东低海拔地区一次多单体雷暴过程的电荷结构演变以及与回波强度的关系.结果表明对流云区电荷结构是典型的上正下负电偶极结构,且随着雷暴发展正负电荷层强度增大,高度抬升.负电荷区处在40 dBz以上的强回波区域中,正电荷层处在约40 dBz区域中.层状云区也有类似结构,只是强度弱,高度低.观测到的四层电荷结构是出现在对流区消散阶段,此时,由于云体不同部位的不同消散程度,电荷结构发生断裂,云体前部正负电荷区下沉,云体中部正负电荷区高度变化不大,但负电荷区域变薄,呈现出四层电荷结构.从本例结果说明,雷暴优势起电机制通常能形成电偶极或三极性结构,多极结构可能不是起电形成.本文还分析了一次负地闪传输过程,和宏观电荷结构很好吻合,说明利用三维定位系统观测,可以较好地描述雷暴宏观电荷结构.     

积云动力和电过程二维模式研究 Ⅱ．计算结果

利用一个二维时变轴对称模式，模拟积云动力和电过程发展，讨论形成雷暴电结构的物理原因．计算结果指出，软雹碰撞冰晶的感应和非感应起电机制是形成雷暴三极性电荷结构和局地产生足以导致空气被击穿的强电场的主要物理过程．雷暴下部的次正电荷区主要由非感应起电机制形成，尤其表现在雷暴发展前期和后期，很依赖于次生冰晶效应．计算得到的次正区和主负区最大电荷浓度约为１０^－８Ｃ／ｍ^３，主正区约低一个量级．     

静止卫星闪电探测中云影响研究

相对已经在轨运行的极轨卫星,搭载在静止卫星上的闪电成像仪能够提供全天候、无间断的闪电探测,是目前全球卫星闪电探测的方向.本文分析云不同特性对云顶闪电信号的影响,以及云高对静止卫星闪电定位的订正分析,将对静止卫星闪电成像仪的研发及其业务化运行提供技术支撑.研究中,通过建立云中闪电传输模型,模拟云中闪电传输.由于云粒子散射,云的体积、光学厚度和形状,以及闪电在云中发生的深度,都影响云中或云间闪电信号传输到云顶的能量衰减和持续时间,其持续时间可能超过已知静止卫星闪电成像仪假设的2 ms成像积分时间间隔,这样不能保证所有的闪电信号在一帧图像内探测到.但是,云粒子散射对云顶闪电的水平位置影响不大,闪电成像仪定位的云顶闪电可代表云中或云间的闪电位置.同时,在传统静止卫星图像定位模型的基础上,建立了闪电定位的云高订正模型.根据该模型,当云顶高度为10 km,云高所引起的闪电定位最大误差达到经向0.5379°、纬向0.2273°,超过已知静止卫星闪电成像仪假设的地面探测单元大小,有必要进行订正.     

The Physics of Lightning

An overview of the physics of cloud-to-ground lightning is given, including its initiation, propagation, and attachment to ground. Discharges artificially initiated (triggered) from natural thunderclouds using the rocket-and-wire technique are discussed with a view toward studying properties of natural lightning. Both conventional and runaway breakdown mechanisms of lightning initiation in thunderclouds are reviewed, as is the role of the lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. New observations of negative-leader stepping and its attachment to ground are compared to similar processes in long laboratory sparks. The mechanism and parameters of compact intracloud lightning discharges that are thought to be the most intense natural producers of HF-VHF (3–300 MHz) radiation on Earth are reviewed. The M-component mode of charge transfer to ground and its difference from the leader/return-stroke mode are discussed. Lightning interaction with the ionosphere and the production of energetic radiation (X-rays and gamma radiation) by cloud-to-ground leaders are considered.     

不同电结构雷暴中的地闪特征

对观测资料的分析表明,甘肃地区和海南岛的地闪特征具有很大差异。海南岛负地闪（P型）首次回击前的电场变化波形与国外的报道类似,而甘肃地区仅有30％左右的负地闪属P型,约70％的负地闪首次回击前的电场变化波形具有明显的云闪特征（C型负地闪）。海南岛没有发现正地闪,甘肃地区有正地闪。该两地区存在两类电结构不同的雷暴,两类雷暴中地闪放电过程及特征的很大差异,说明我国的防雷规范及措施很可能需要考虑雷暴的地区差异性。     

Lightning activity and precipitation structure of hailstorms

By using the cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning location data from the lightning detection network of He- nan Province, surface Doppler radar data and standard orbit data of PR, TMI and LIS on TRMM satellite, the spatial and temporal characteristics of CG lightning flashes in 10 severe hailstorms are analyzed. The results show that the percentage of CG lightning in these hailstorms is high with an average value of 45.5%. There is a distinct increase in CG flash rate during the rapid development stage of hailstorms. The hailstone falling corresponds to an active positive flash period, and the increase of CG flash rate is generally accompanied with a decrease of –CG flash rate. The flash rate declines rapidly during the dissipating stage of hailstorms. The precipitation structure and lightning activity in two typical hail- storms are studied in detail. It is found that strong convective cells with reflectivity greater than 30dBZ mainly are situated in the front region of hailstorms, whereas the trailing stratiform region is in the rear part of the hailstorms. The maximum heights of echo top are higher than 14 km. Convective rain con- tributes much more rainfall to the total than stratiform rain, and the convective rain takes about 85% and 97% of the total in the two cases, respectively. Total lightning in the hailstorms is very active with the flash rate up to 183 fl/min and 55 fl/min, respectively. The results also indicate that most lightning flashes occurred in the echo region greater than 30 dBZ and its immediate periphery. The probability of lightning occurrence is 20 times higher in the convective region than in the stratiform region. The result suggests that the lightning information is helpful to the identification of convective rain region. The linear relationship between flash rate and ice water content is disclosed primarily.     

Electromagnetic Methods of Lightning Detection

Both cloud-to-ground and cloud lightning discharges involve a number of processes that produce electromagnetic field signatures in different regions of the spectrum. Salient characteristics of measured wideband electric and magnetic fields generated by various lightning processes at distances ranging from tens to a few hundreds of kilometers (when at least the initial part of the signal is essentially radiation while being not influenced by ionospheric reflections) are reviewed. An overview of the various lightning locating techniques, including magnetic direction finding, time-of-arrival technique, and interferometry, is given. Lightning location on global scale, when radio-frequency electromagnetic signals are dominated by ionospheric reflections, is also considered. Lightning locating system performance characteristics, including flash and stroke detection efficiencies, percentage of misclassified events, location accuracy, and peak current estimation errors, are discussed. Both cloud and cloud-to-ground flashes are considered. Representative examples of modern lightning locating systems are reviewed. Besides general characterization of each system, the available information on its performance characteristics is given with emphasis on those based on formal ground-truth studies published in the peer-reviewed literature.     

Estimate of NOX production in the lightning channel based on three-dimensional lightning locating system

Based on the VHF lightning locating system,a three-dimensional-space cell-gridded approach is used to extract the lighting channel and calculate the length of the channel.Through clustering of the located radiation sources and then extracting the lightning channel,it can accurately obtain the length of the channel.To validate the feasibility of the approach,a simulation experiment is designed,and it shows the length error is no more than 10%.The relationship between the NO production of per unit arc length and atmospheric pressure obtained in laboratory is applied to the NOX production of per unit flash length at different altitudes in this paper.The channel length and the NOX production of 11 negative cloud-to-ground flashes and 59 intracloud flashes in an isolated thunderstorm in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are calculated.The results show that the average channel lengths of per cloud-to-ground and intracloud flash are 28.9 and 22.3 km respectively;the average NOX productions of per cloud-to-ground and intracloud flash are 1.89×1025 and 0.42×1025 molecules,respectively.     

卫星观测到的全球闪电活动及其地域差异

闪电活动在时间和空间尺度上都有很大的可变性. 本文利用热带降水测量计划（TRMM）卫星上携带的闪电探测系统获取的闪电定位资料首次对一些典型地区的闪电活动进行了对比分析. 研究发现不同地区的闪电活动无论在闪电频数或放电强度方面都有很大的差别，海洋上的闪电活动频数与陆地上的闪电活动频数可相差几十倍；不同地区闪电活动的多少不仅取决于该地雷暴日数的多少，更重要的还取决于该地每次雷暴过程闪电频数的多少；不同地区的闪电放电强度有随闪电频数增加而减小的趋势. 进一步研究还表明，不同地区闪电光辐射能的不同可以用对流最大不稳定能量（ECAPE）来解释，闪电放电强度与ECAPE之间存在非常好的线性正相关；而闪电活动频数对ECAPE的响应则与闪电光辐射能不同，二者之间没有发现明显的相关.     

Numerical simulation of 23 June 2016 Yancheng City EF4 tornadic supercell and analysis of lightning activity

Based on the Weather Research Forecasting (WRF) model that features charging and discharging parameterization, relationships between tornado, hail and lightning were investigated for a tornado-producing (EF4 intensity) supercell thunderstorm over Yancheng City in Jiangsu Province, China, on 23 June 2016. Based on a sounding at 0800, there was a low lifting condensation level, substantial convective available potential energy (CAPE), and strong vertical wind shear near Yancheng City, which promote supercell development. At 1400, observations revealed that hail production and a dramatic increase of positive cloud-to-ground flash rates occurred simultaneously, maximizing five minutes later. The tornado occurred 30 min after the hail production. The time of minimum positive cloud-to-ground flash rates was 15 min later. The simulation indicated that the tornadic supercell moved eastward and that positive cloud-to-ground flash rates increased dramatically at 1400, the same as observed, but their maximum was 5 min later than observed. The simulated updraft volume peaked at 1425 and the simulated downdraft volume maximized 5 min later, when the mesocyclone formed. Simulated reflectivities showed no hook echo and horizontal winds for different height at mid-low levels had a different cyclonic shear at 1430, favorable to mesocyclone formation. Based on the simulated results, the region of positively charged graupel ascended resulting from the region of high liquid water content was lifted by the strong updraft, forming a mid-level strong positive charge region. A lower negative charge region formed by the inductive charging mechanism of collisions between graupel and droplets at the bottom of the cloud, conducive to positive cloud-to-ground flashes.     

The relation between the number of strokes,stroke intervals and the total durations of lightning discharges

Summary Although lightning flashes have been photographed which apparently have up to 40 or more component strokes, no flashes having more than 14 strokes have been observed on records of the eletrical fields of thunderstorms. The apparent discrepancy between the two methods of observation is explained by the fact that small momentary increases in the continuing current flowing to ground after some strokes, are easily mistaken for component strokes on photographs taken with slow cameras.After the cessation of a discharge, the ionization of the lightning channel decreases at such a rate that a subsequent discharge to earth will require a fresh leader if it follows within an interval longer than about 15 millisec; discharges following at shorter intervals are not preceded by leaders. The channel loses its ionization completely in about 100 millisec.In general, the larger the number of component strokes, the longer is the duration of the flash, but there is no definite relationship between the number of strokes and the duration.Flashes of exceptionally long duration always have one or more very long intervals between two successive strokes and during these intervals there appears to be very little electrical activity in the cloud; it is suggested that the main progress of the discharge in the cloud takes place during the shorter intervals, so that flashes of long duration do not necessarily drain very extensive regions of charge.I wish to thank the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for a grant in aid of this research.     

Using full-flash narrowband energy for ranging of lightning ground strokes

We demonstrate that narrowband measurements can be used for rudimentary ranging of cloud-to-ground lightning flashes. The system at present responds to both intra-cloud and cloud-to-ground lightning; ranging is demonstrated for a subset of flashes known to be cloud-to-ground lightning. The system uses a ferrite-core antenna with a length of about 4 cm and diameter 4 mm, and operates on a narrow band at about 1 MHz, close to the HF band (3–30 MHz). It downmixes the signal to audio frequencies and operates in a manner which is very similar to an AM radio. The system triggers on all impulses which exceed a given adjustable threshold above the ambient noise level, and records 1 s of data. Such a system was used to collect lightning-caused electromagnetic disturbances during summer 2006 in Finland. The output is compared to two scientifically verified references: a flat-plate broadband antenna measuring the vertical electric field and a commercial lightning location network giving flash location. A key aim of the system is to reduce the information to as few parameters as possible. Peak intensity and full-flash energy were used as simple parameters. It is shown that accurate flash-by-flash ranging is not possible with this method; however, it is shown that the method can be used to track clusters of ground flashes within a range of about 50–100 km with an accuracy of about 10 km.     

Using Lightning Data to Better Understand and Predict Flash Floods in the Mediterranean

One of the costliest natural hazards around the globe is flash floods, resulting from localized intense convective precipitation over short periods of time. Since intense convective rainfall (especially over the continents) is well correlated with lightning activity in these storms, a European Union FP6 FLASH project was realized from 2006 to 2010, focusing on using lightning observations to better understand and predict convective storms that result in flash floods. As part of the project, 23 case studies of flash floods in the Mediterranean region were examined. For the analysis of these storms, lightning data were used together with rainfall estimates in order to understand the storms?? development and electrification processes. In addition, these case studies were simulated using mesoscale meteorological models to better understand the local and synoptic conditions leading to such intense and damaging storms. As part of this project, tools for short-term predictions (nowcasts) of intense convection across the Mediterranean and Europe, and long-term forecasts (a few days) of the likelihood of intense convection, were developed and employed. The project also focused on educational outreach through a special Web site http://flashproject.org supplying real-time lightning observations, real-time experimental nowcasts, medium-range weather forecasts and educational materials. While flash floods and intense thunderstorms cannot be prevented, long-range regional lightning networks can supply valuable data, in real time, for warning the public, end-users and stakeholders of imminent intense rainfall and possible flash floods.