Solid bitumen reflectance and Rock-Eval Tmax as maturation indices: an example from the “Nordegg Member”, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin

Marine, organic-rich rock units commonly contain little for vitrinite reflectance (VR₀) measurement, the most commoly used method of assessing thermal maturity. This is true of the Lower Jurassic “Nordegg Member”, a type I/II, sulphur-rich source rock from the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. This study examines the advantages and pitfalls associated with the use of Rock-Eval T_max and solid bitumen reflectance (BR₀) to determined maturity in the “Nordegg”. Vitrinite reflectance data from Cretaceous coals and known coalification gradients in the study area are used to extrapolate VR₀ values for the “Nordegg”.T_max increases non-linearly with respect to both BR₀ and extrapolated VR₀ values. A sharp increase in the reflectaance of both solid bitumen and vitrinite occurs between T_max 440–450°C, and is coincident with a pronounced decrease in Hydrogen Index values and the loss of solid bitumen and telalginite fluorescence over the same narrow T_max interval. This T_max range is interpreted as the main zone of hydrocarbon generation in the “Nordegg”, and corresponds to extrapolated VR₀ values of 0.55–0.85%. The moderate to high sulphur contents in the kerogen played a significant role in determining the boundaries of the “Nordegg” oil window.A linear relationship between BR₀ and extrapolated VR₀, as proposed elsewhere, is not true for the “Nordegg”. BR₀ increases with respect to extrapolated VR₀ according to Jacob's (1985) formula (VR₀=0.618×(BR₀)+0.40) up to VR₀≈0.72% (BR₀≈0.52%). Beyond this point, BR₀ increases sharply relative to extrapolated VR₀, according to the relatioship VR₀ = 0.277 × (BR₀) + 0.57 (R² = 0.91). The break in the BR₀−VR₀ curve at 0.72%VR₀ is thought to signifiy the peak of hydrocarbon generation and represents a previously unrecognized coalification jump in the solid bitumen analogous to the first coalification jump of liptinites.     

Evolution of optical properties of vitrinite, sporinite and semifusinite in response to heating under inert conditions

The objective of the study was to characterize changes of reflectance, reflectance anisotropy and reflectance indicating surface (RIS) shape of vitrinite, sporinite and semifusinite subjected to thermal treatment under inert conditions. Examination was performed on vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite concentrates prepared from channel samples of steam coal (R_r = 0.70%) and coking coal (R_r = 1.25%), collected from seam 405 of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin. The concentrates were heated at temperatures of 400–1200 °C for 1 h time in an argon atmosphere.All components examined in this study: vitrinite, sporinite and semifusinite as well as matrix of vitrinite and liptinite cokes, despite of rank of their parent coal, show, in general, the most important changes of reflectance value and optical anisotropy when heated at 500 °C, 800 °C (with the exception of bireflectance value of sporinite) and 1200 °C.After heating the steam coal at 1200 °C, the vitrinite and the semifusinite reveal similar reflectances, whereas the latter a slightly stronger anisotropy. Sporinite and matrix of liptinite coke have lower reflectances but anisotropy (R_bi and R_am values) similar to those observed for vitrinite and semifusinite. However, at 1000 °C sporinite and matrix of liptinite coke have the highest reflectivity of the studied components. The RIS at 1200 °C is the same for all components.The optical properties of the three macerals in the coking coal become similar after heating at 1000 °C. Coke obtained at 1200 °C did not contain distinguishable vitrinite grains. At 1200 °C semifusinite and vitrinite coke matrix have highest R_r values among the examined components. Maximum reflectance (R_max) reach similar values for vitrinite and sporinite, slightly lower for semifusinite. Matrix of liptinite coke and matrix of vitrinite coke have considerably stronger anisotropy (R_bi and R_am values) than other components. RIS at 1200 °C is also similar for all components.     

Lower palaeozoic and precambrian petroleum source rocks and the coalification path of alginite

Organic-rich samples derived from a Middle Cambrian Formation in the Georgina Basin, and from the Middle Proterozoic of the McArthur Basin in northern and central Australia, yielded alginite ranging from immature oil shale material to overmature residue. A maturation scale has been developed based on the thermal evolution of alginite as determined from reflectance and fluorescence. The coalification path of alginite is marked by jumps in contrast to the linear path of wood-derived vitrinite. Six zones have been recognised, ranging from undermature (zone I), through the mature (zones II/III), followed by a stable stage of no change (zone IV) to the overmature (zones V and VI). The onset of oil generation in alginite as evident from the present study is at 0.3% R_{o Alg.} and is expressed in a change of fluorescence from yellow to brown, and a coalification jump from 0.3 to 0.6% R_o of Alg. In many boreholes zone III can be distinguished between 0.6 and 0.8% R_o of Alg. where subsequent oil generation occurs. Zones II and III represent the oil window.A zone of little or no change designated zone IV, at of alginite follows zones II/III. A marked coalification jump characterises zone V, where a pronounced change in reflectance occurs to >1.0% R_{o Alg.}, signifying peak gas generation. The border of oil preservation lies at the transition of zone V and VI, at 1.6% R_{o Alg.} In zone VI gas generation only occurs.Comparison of reflectance results with experimental and geochemical pyrolysis data supports high activation energies for hydrocarbon generation from alginite, and therefore a later onset of oil generation than other liptinite macerals (i.e. cutinite, exinite, resinite) as well as a narrow oil window.Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirms that alginite does not go through a distinct intermediate stage but that the percentage of unreacted organic matter decreases as maturation proceeds. A clear distinction can be made in TEM between immature alginite, alginite after oil generation, and alginite residue following gas generation. Alginite beyond 1.6% R_o acquires very high densities and the appearance of inertinite in TEM.Bitumens/pyrobitumens make a pronounced contribution to the organic matter throughout the basins and have been shown to effect pyrolysis results by suppressing T_max. The bitumens/pyrobitumens have been divided into four groups, based on their reflectance and morphology, which in turn appears to be an expression of their genetic history. Their significance is in aiding the understanding of the basins' thermal history, and the timing of oil and gas generation.     

一种页岩含气性热演化规律研究的模拟实验方法

目前针对页岩气赋存规律研究的热模拟实验主要是沿袭常规油气热模拟方法,以粉末态样品开展模拟,研究对象为岩石生成并排出的烃类气体,这种模拟方式未明确页岩气的实质为"滞留气",并且模拟后样品无法开展扫描电镜分析,不能确定岩石孔隙结构变化规律。本文通过石英玻璃管封装块状样开展页岩生烃热模拟实验,并结合一套数据处理方法,尝试建立了一种适合页岩气研究的热模拟实验方法,研究泥页岩在不同演化阶段(Ro范围为0.596%~2.143%)不同赋存状态气体的含量以及岩石微观孔隙特征的变化情况。结果表明,泥岩及油页岩样品的排出气及解析气含量在高成熟度阶段(400℃以后)有明显增加的趋势,结合扫描电镜微观结构分析显示这是由于有机质生气量以及无机孔隙均有增加。本方法可以研究页岩热演化过程中不同赋存状态气体含量及微观孔隙结构的变化,为页岩气勘探开发提供了一种可参考的方法。     

The petroleum generation potential and effective oil window of humic coals related to coal composition and age

A worldwide data set of more than 500 humic coals from the major coal-forming geological periods has been used to analyse the evolution in the remaining (Hydrogen Index, HI) and total (Quality Index, QI) generation potentials with increasing thermal maturity and the ‘effective oil window’ (‘oil expulsion window’). All samples describe HI and QI bands that are broad at low maturities and that gradually narrow with increasing maturity. The oil generation potential is completely exhausted at a vitrinite reflectance of 2.0–2.2%R_o or T_max of 500–510 °C. The initial large variation in the generation potential is related to the original depositional conditions, particularly the degree of marine influence and the formation of hydrogen-enriched vitrinite, as suggested by increased sulphur and hydrogen contents. During initial thermal maturation the HI increases to a maximum value, HI_max. Similarly, QI increases to a maximum value, QI_max. This increase in HI and QI is related to the formation of an additional generation potential in the coal structure. The decline in QI with further maturation is indicating onset of initial oil expulsion, which precedes efficient expulsion. Liquid petroleum generation from humic coals is thus a complex, three-phase process: (i) onset of petroleum generation, (ii) petroleum build-up in the coal, and (iii) initial oil expulsion followed by efficient oil expulsion (corresponding to the effective oil window). Efficient oil expulsion is indicated by a decline in the Bitumen Index (BI) when plotted against vitrinite reflectance or T_max. This means that in humic coals the vitrinite reflectance or T_max values at which onset of petroleum generation occurs cannot be used to establish the start of the effective oil window. The start of the effective oil window occurs within the vitrinite reflectance range 0.85–1.05%R_o or T_max range 440–455 °C and the oil window extends to 1.5–2.0%R_o or 470–510 °C. For general use, an effective oil window is proposed to occur from 0.85 to 1.7%R_o or from 440 to 490 °C. Specific ranges for HI_max and the effective oil window can be defined for Cenozoic, Jurassic, Permian, and Carboniferous coals. Cenozoic coals reach the highest HI_max values (220–370 mg HC/g TOC), and for the most oil-prone Cenozoic coals the effective oil window may possibly range from 0.65 to 2.0%R_o or 430 to 510 °C. In contrast, the most oil-prone Jurassic, Permian and Carboniferous coals reach the expulsion threshold at a vitrinite reflectance of 0.85–0.9%R_o or T_max of 440–445 °C.     

Relationships among geochemical indices of coal and carbonaceous materials and implication for hydrocarbon potential evaluation

A worldwide dataset of organic material from 553 samples belonging to coal and carbonaceous materials was used to analyze the evolution of hydrogen index (HI) and bitumen index (BI) with increasing thermal maturity. Basic statistical analyses were applied to detect the boundary lines of HI_max and BI_max in delineating the upper and lower limits of the HI and BI bands for the majority of samples. In addition, cross-plots of HI or BI versus maturity (Ro% and T _max) also provide criteria for defining the HI_max and BI_max boundary lines. The constructed HI and BI bands are broad at low maturities and become narrower with increasing thermal maturities. The petroleum generation potential is completely exhausted at the vitrinite reflectance of 2.0–2.2% or T _max of 510–520°C. An increase in HI implies extra petroleum generation which was related to changes in structure of organic materials. A declining BI means that the oil expulsion window starts to occur at the vitrinite reflectance range of 0.75–1.05%. The petroleum potential can be divided into four different areas based on the cross-plot of HI versus Ro%. The highest petroleum potential area is located in section II with Ro = 0.6–1.0% and HI > 100. The oil generation potential is rapidly exhausted at section III with Ro > 1.0%. This result is also in accordance with the result of curve regression of HI versus Ro% based on 80 samples with Ro = 1.02–3.43% (R ² = 0.72). Overall, the total oil window can be extended up to Ro = ~1.25–1.95%. Finally, in the cross-plots of S1 versus S2, shale or C-shale exhibits a higher and slowly decreased slope, compared with a lower and then sharply increased slope of coal samples, which is attributable to their compositional difference in organic material.     

Properties of thermally metamorphosed coal from Tanjung Enim Area, South Sumatra Basin, Indonesia with special reference to the coalification path of macerals

Thermally metamorphosed Tertiary age coals from Tanjung Enim in South Sumatra Basin have been investigated by means of petrographic, mineralogical and chemical analyses. These coals were influenced by heat from an andesitic igneous intrusion. The original coal outside the metamorphosed zone is characterized by high moisture content (4.13–11.25 wt.%) and volatile matter content (> 40 wt.%, daf), as well as less than 80 wt.% (daf) carbon and low vitrinite reflectance (VR_max = 0.52–0.76%). Those coals are of subbituminous and high volatile bituminous rank. In contrast the thermally metamorphosed coals are of medium-volatile bituminous to meta-anthracite rank and characterized by low moisture content (only < 3 wt.%) and volatile matter content (< 24 wt.%, daf), as well as high carbon content (> 80 wt.%, daf) and vitrinite reflectance (VR_max = 1.87–6.20%). All the studied coals have a low mineral matter content, except for those which are highly metamorphosed, due to the formation of new minerals.The coalification path of each maceral shows that vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite reflectance converge in a transition zone at VR_max of around 1.5%. Significant decrease of volatile matter occurs in the zone between 0.5% and 2.0% VR_max. A sharp bend occurs at VR_max between 2.0% and 2.5%. Above 2.5%, the volatile matter decreases only very slightly. Between VR_r = 0.5% and 2.0%, the carbon content of the coals is ascending drastically. Above 2.5% VR_r, the carbon content becomes relatively stable (around 95 wt.%, daf).Vitrinite is the most abundant maceral in low rank coal (69.6–86.2 vol.%). Liptinite and inertinite are minor constituents. In the high rank coal, the thermally altered vitrinite composes 82.4–93.8 vol.%. Mosaic structures can be recognized as groundmasss and crack fillings. The most common minerals found are carbonates, pyrite or marcasite and clay minerals. The latter consist of kaolinite in low rank coal and illite and rectorite in high rank coal. Change of functional groups with rank increase is reflected most of all by the increase of the ratio of aromatic C–H to aliphatic C–H absorbances based on FTIR analysis. The Oxygen Index values of all studied coals are low (OI < 5 mg CO₂/g TOC) and the high rank coals have a lower Hydrogen Index (< 130 mg HC/g TOC) than the low rank coals (about 300 mg HC/g TOC). T_max increases with maturity (420–440 °C for low rank coals and 475–551 °C for high rank coals).Based on the above data, it was calculated that the temperature of contact metamorphism reached 700–750 °C in the most metamorphosed coal.     

Studies of the relationship between coal petrology and grinding properties

The maceral and microlithotype composition of selected coals has been investigated with respect to the grinding properties, specifically Hardgrove grindability index (HGI), of the coals. The study expands upon previous investigations of HGI and coal petrology by adding the dimension of the amount and composition of the microlithotypes. Coal samples, both lithotypes and whole channels, were selected from restricted rank ranges based on vitrinite maximum reflectance: 0.75–0.80% R_max, 0.85–0.90% R_max and 0.95–1.00% R_max. In this manner, the influence of petrographic composition can be isolated from the influence of rank. Previous investigations of high volatile bituminous coals demonstrated that, while rank is an important factor in coal grindability, the amount of liptinite and liptinite-rich microlithotypes is a more influential factor. In this study, we provide further quantitative evidence for the influence of microlithotypes on HGI and, ultimately, on pulverizer performance.     

The petrology and origin of coals from the lower Carboniferous Mattson formation, southwestern district of Mackenzie, Canada

Petrographic analyses were carried out on thin coals and coaly sediments from the Lower Carboniferous Mattson Formation at Clausen Creek and Jackfish Gap-Yohin Ridge in the northern part of the Liard Basin, northern Canada. The composition and optical characteristics indicate that the coals are high-volatile bituminous B, predominantly sapropelic (canneloid) and accumulated subaquatically.The coals are dominantly composed of inertinite-rich and exinite-rich durities with subsidiary inertites and clarodurites; vitrite is minor and liptite is rare. The inertinite-rich microlithotypes are dominated by semifusinite, but micrinite, semimacrinite and ?resino-inertinites are abundant. Sporinite, comprising megaspores, crassispores, tenuispores and miospores, is the dominant liptinite maceral with subsidiary cutinite and minor alginite. Except for pyrite, mineral matter is minimal.Three populations of telocollinite are observed: a low-reflectance variety (I), commonly associated with micrinite (as vitrinertite), displays weak brown fluorescence and a reflectance some 0.4-0.5% lower than type II; type II is non-fluorescing telocollinite, with intermediate reflectance (0.67-0.74% R_om), it occurs as vitrite and is also associated with micrinite; and a higher-reflectance telocollinite (III), having no fluorescence or association with micrinite, has variable reflectance (0.74-0.8% R_om) implying higher oxidation or gelification levels.The abundance of semimacrinite, macrinite and ?resino-inertinites in inertites and durites (I) suggests that much of the peat accumulated subaquatically. Furthermore, fluorescing vitrinite and an abundance of micrinite (derived by oxidation or coalification of bituminite), suggest that the coal accumulated under anaerobic conditions. The predominance of semifusinite in humic laminae and micrinite in sapropelic layers suggests extensive surface or near-surface oxidation of the peat. Oxidised sporinites suggest that they were wind-borne.Depositional environment is interpreted as marginal marine, perhaps in shallow lakes in the middle to upper delta plain. Peat accumulations probably began subaquatically at the oxygen-hydrogen sulphide interface, but periodic subaerial exposure and natural oxidation gave rise to the high inertinite coals. Upper Mattson coals are interbedded with algal laminites and probably accumulated in a lagoonal setting.     

Regional coal seam gas distribution and burial history of the Hunter Coalfield,Sydney Basin

Basin modelling has been used to improve understanding of the origin and temporal evolution of coal seam gas in the Hunter Coalfield of the Sydney Basin. Burial history models were produced based on data from seven boreholes located in the southern, eastern, central and western areas of the coalfield. Mean random vitrinite reflectance (R_v,r) data, derived from measurements of mean maximum reflectance (R_v,max), were used for calibration of the models. A qualitative sensitivity analysis of one model shows that varying the paleoheat flow has a greater influence on calculated R_v,r than varying the eroded overburden thickness.

The differences between the constructed models are significant enough to provide plausible explanations for regional gas distribution in the Hunter Coalfield. Coals in the south of the coalfield appear to have the greatest potential for thermogenic gas generation. Modelling has shown that areas that have low gas contents and decreased permeability have been uplifted more, and buried less, compared with areas that have high gas contents. Burial history modelling shows noticeable variations in the extent of burial and uplift, and, consequently, in thermal maturities and potential for thermogenic gas generation; together with the assessment of other coal and gas property data, it appears that present-day gas contents may partially reflect coal ranks and adsorption capacities, with late-stage biogenic gas generation replenishing CH₄ volumes that were lost following uplift during the Late Cretaceous.     

Structural modifications of vitrinite and alginite concentrates during pyrolitic maturation at different heating rates. A combined infrared, C NMR and microscopical study

Immature vitrinite samples from a Miocene lignite seam of western Germany (H/C = 1.14, O/C = 0.41) and alginite concentrates from a Tasmanite deposit of Australia (H/C = 1.60, O/C = 0.10) were pyrolyzed in a stream of argon at heating rates of 0.1 and 2.0°C/min up to temperatures varying from 200 to 670°C. The solid maceral residues were subjected to elemental and microscopical analysis and studied by IR and ¹³C CP/MAS NMR spectroscopy with respect to structural modifications.The maximum pyrolytic weight loss amounts to 60% of the initial organic matter in the case of vitrinite and to 85% for alginite, the onset of degradation reactions being shifted to higher temperatures with increasing rate of heating. Both infrared and NMR spectra of the vitrinite samples indicate a rapid decomposition of the cellulose component upon heating whereas lignin related structures such as aromatic ether linkages remain remarkably stable. The main hydrocarbon release from vitrinite occurs at very early evolution stages (T_max = 296°C, R_m = 0.20% at 0.1°C/min; T_max = 337°C, R_m = 0.23 at 2.0°C/min). Hydrocarbon generation from alginite requires higher temperatures (T_max = 388 and 438°C) and is completed within a distinctly narrower temperature range.The pronounced increase of vitrinite reflectance between 350 and 670°C seems to be associated with a rather time-consuming reorganization of the residual organic material. The concomitant growth of polyaromatic units is illustrated by the increasing intensity ratio of the aromatic ring stretching vibration bands at 1600 and 1500 cm⁻¹. These reactions are moreover marked by increasing loss of phenolic oxygen and by increasing conversion of aliphatic carbon into fixed aromatic carbon.     

Physical and chemical environments of abnormal vitrinite reflectance evolution in the sedimentary basins

Based on the tested data of pressure and vitrinite reflectance of some wells in sedimentary basins, abnormal high pressure is regarded as not the only factor to retard the increase of vitrinite reflectance (R _o). Apart from the types of the organic matter, the physical environment (temperature and pressure) and chemical environment (fluid composition and inorganic elements) will result in the abnormal vitrinite reflectance values in the sedimentary basins. This paper tested trace elements and vitrinite reflectance data from the the abnormal high pressure and normal pressure strata profiles, respectively, and found that the acidic and lower salinity starta are favorable for the increase of R _o. By discussing the corresponding relationship between the contents of some trace elements in the mudstone and the vitrinite reflectance values, the typical trace elements were found to suppress and/or catalyze the vitrinite reflectance of organic matter, while the elements of Ca, Mn, Sr, B, Ba and P may result in the retardation of R _o. However, elements of Fe, Co, Zn, Ni and Rb may catalyze the organic matter maturation. This study is conductive to the organic maturation correction, oil and gas assessment and thermal history reconstruction by the paleothermometry. Translated from Acta Geologica Sinica, 2006, 80(11): 1760–1769 [译自: 地质学报]     

The lateral and vertical reflectance and petrological variation of a heat-affected bituminous coal seam from southeastern British Columbia, Canada

Thermally altered pods of coal of very high rank have been observed in a high-volatile-bituminous coal seam in the eastern side of Eagle Mountain, Elk Valley Coalfield, British Columbia. Rank changes have been measured over a strike distance of 7.5 m from 1.24% to 7.1% R_{o max}, corresponding to a rank gradient of 0.78% R_om⁻¹.Petrologically, unaltered to extremely altered vitrinite showing nongranular (basic) anisotropy, mosaic-textured liptinite and pyrolytic carbon are the most abundant components. The limited presence of mosaic on vitrinite is an indication that the coal seam may have been weathered prior to being heat-affected.Evidence points to localized temperatures as high as 1,000°C, which could have been caused by a lightning strike. The eastern side of Eagle Mountain has experienced higher temperatures than the western side, and it appears that the heat ‘front’ and zone of alteration have an irregular pattern, pointing to saturation of parts of the coal seam by water.Four types of pyrolytic carbon having distinct morphology, anisotrophy and optical path with increasing temperature were observed. Reflectance of pyrolytic carbon falls within the zone of heat-affected coals, whereas the optical path of heat-affected Seam 15 samples is different from that of fresh coal with increasing rank.Finally, the reflectance of vitrinite in heat-affected coal is higher than the reflectance of vitrinite in carbonaceous shale in the Seam 15 section.     

C NMR, micro-FTIR and fluorescence spectra, and pyrolysis-gas chromatograms of coalified foliage of late Carboniferous medullosan seed ferns, Nova Scotia, Canada: Implications for coalification and chemotaxonomy

The cuticles and cuticle-free compressions of three Carboniferous medullosan seed-fern leaf species (Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri, Neuropteris ovata var. simonii and Alethopteris lesquereuxii) were analyzed by elemental, ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), micro-FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) and coal petrographic techniques. The 13C NMR spectra of the cuticle-free compressions and the associated whole coal (high volatile A/B bituminous coal rank) are generally similar and consist of a large aromatic carbon peak, a smaller aliphatic carbon peak and a shoulder on the aromatic peak, representing phenolic carbons. In contrast, the ¹³C NMR spectra of the cuticles from the same leaves have a predominant peak for aliphatic carbons and a much smaller aromatic carbon peak. This difference in aromaticity between the cuticles and the cuticle-free compressions is also reflected in the higher atomic H/C ratios of the cuticles. Micro-FTIR spectra of the cuticles show oxygenated functional groups (carboxyl and ketone) similar to those in modern cuticles but their most characteristic feature is very strong bands in the aliphatic stretching region. The cuticle-free compressions (mainly vitrinite), in turn, show the absence or significant reduction in oxygenated functional groups, reduction in aliphatic stretching bands and, usually, increased absorbance of aromatic out-of-plane deformation in the 700–900 cm⁻¹ region. Fluorescence spectra for the cuticles from all three species show a great similarity with a λ_max at 580–590 nm, probably reflecting a similardegree of coalification, which is consistent with the similar vitrinite reflectance (R_r) and H/C and O/C ratios of the cuticlefree compressions.These results indicate that leaf cuticle-free compressions, which were initially cellulose rich ( 90% cellulose and hemicellulose, < 10% lignin), can alter, during peatification and coalification, to a macromolecular structure similar to that of coalified wood (initially 50% cellulose and hemicellulose, 30%–50% lignin). Thus, a lignin-enriched structure is not a prerequisite for the formation of the macromolecular structure of vitrinite. In addition, the micro-FTIR spectra reveal the complexity of the molecular structure in coalified seed-fern leaves. The micro-FFIR data reveal some significant differences among the cuticles that may be of chemotaxonomic value. Clearly, a combination of macro- and micro-techniques offers a better basis for the interpretation of the molecular structure of pre-macerals and their alteration during peatification and coalification. Also, the data presented in this paper provide important new information that extends the data from morphological and cuticular taxonomic studies of some seed ferns. The data are encouraging preliminary advances in the chemotaxonomy of medullosan seed fern species.Pyrolysis-gas chromatography (PY-GC) data for the cuticles of three seed-fern leaves indicate distinct chemical signatures for the two neuropterid leaves as compared to the Alethopteris leaf. This perhaps indicates a chemotaxomic factor, or it could be related to the greater thickness of the cuticle of Alethopteris. Mass spectrometric data are needed to identify individual components in the PY-GC chromatograms.     

Analysis of relationships between geochemical parameters of petroleum potential in related source and carbonaceous materials

A worldwide data set of 1,085 samples containing organic matter of the type II/III kerogen from Carboniferous to Cenozoic was used to analyse the evolution of the hydrogen index (HI), quality index (QI), and bitumen index (BI) with increasing thermal maturity. The HI_max, QI_max and BI_max lines were defined, based on statistical analysis and cross-plots of HI, QI and BI versus the vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) and T _max (°C). The constructed HI, QI and BI bands were broad at low maturities and gradually narrowed with increasing thermal maturity. The petroleum generation potential is completely exhausted at a vitrinite reflectance of 2.0–2.2 % and T _max of 510–520 °C. An increase in HI and QI suggests extra petroleum potential related to changes in the structure of the organic material. A decline in BI signifies the start of the oil window and occurs within the vitrinite reflectance range 0.75–1.05 % and T _max of 440–455 °C. Furthermore, petroleum potential can be divided into four different parts based on the cross-plot of HI versus %Ro. The area with the highest petroleum potential is located in “Samples and methods” with %Ro = 0.6–1.0 %, and HI > 100. Oil generation potential is rapidly exhausted at “Results and discussion” with %Ro > 1.0 %. This result is in accordance with the regression curve of HI and QI with %Ro based on 80 samples with %Ro = 1.02–3.43 %. The exponential equation of regression can thus be achieved: HI = 994.81e^?1.69Ro and QI = 1,646.2e^?2.003Ro (R ² = 0.72). The worldwide organic material data set defines two range of oil window represented by the upper and lower limits of the BI band: %Ro 0.75–1.95 %, T _max 440–525 °C, and %Ro 1.05–1.25 %, T _max 455–465 °C, respectively.     

Coalification pattern and thermal modelling of the Permo-Carboniferous Saar Basin (SW-Germany)

Palaeo-heat flow values and thicknesses of eroded Permo-Carboniferous sediments in the Saar Basin were evaluated using one dimensional thermal modelling techniques. Thermal, burial and erosion histories for 16 wells were calibrated by comparing measured and calculated vitrinite reflectance using the kinetic EASY%R_o algorithm and by comparing measured and calculated temperature data. On the basis of 37 wells, coalification maps were constructed revealing a syn-kinematic coalification pattern. Thermal maturity of the sediments can only be explained by deep burial and moderate heat flows during time of maximum burial, i.e., in the Permo-Carboniferous. Calculated heat flow data range between 50 and 75 mW/m², which implies a crustal thickness between 30 and 40 km during the time of maximum burial. These values are in accordance with the geodynamic setting of the basin. The influence of the Permo-Carboniferous volcanism on the palaeo-temperature distribution was overwhelmed by the subsequent deep burial. During Permian times, between 1800 and 3000 m of Permo-Carboniferous sediments were eroded. Different sedimentation and erosion histories are characteristic for anticlines and synclines, respectively.     

实验变形煤的光性组构分析

三种R_max^o分别为0.67%,3.41%和4.90%的煤样,在t=350-700℃、P_c=400-600MPa、ε=10%-30%、ε=3.63×10^-4-2.59×10^-5s^-1条件下的变形实验表明:(1)煤光性组构的成因是芳环层片在构造应力作用下重新定向所致,重新定向的主要机制是煤化过程中芳环层片的择优成核生长,同时存在物理转动定向机制的作用;(2)芳环层片的重新定向主要发生在煤级相对较低阶段,VRI的Z轴主要反映这一阶段的构造应力方向;(3)YRI的形态特征并非仅与有限应变有关,它不能直接作为有限应变分析的标志。     

Optical parameters of maturity of organic matter dispersed in sediments: first results from the Central Apennines (Italy)

Levels of organic maturity of Mesozoic and Tertiary sequences outcropping in the Central Apennines have been established, using vitrinite reflectance techniques, the Thermal Alteration Index and fluorescence colours of organic matter dispersed in sediments. These results provide new constraints throughout the Meso-Cenozoic evolution of this crustal sector. In exploration geology, vitrinite reflectance provides data on hydrocarbon maturation by constraining organic matter maturity. In sedimentary basin modelling, it is adopted to define the palaeothermal regime. Vitrinite reflectance (R_o) also provides information on the burial history of sedimentary basins and may be employed to estimate tectonic uplift and erosion rates. Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) and fluorescence colour values can be correlated with R_o and may be used to estimate the degree of maturation when vitrinite is absent. Samples derived from the Sabini and Tiburtini Mts, in slope facies between the Latium–Abruzzi carbonate Platform and the Umbria–Marche pelagic Basin; from the Simbruini and Ernici Mts, in carbonate Platform facies, and from upper Miocene turbiditic deposits outcropping between the Olevano–Antrodoco Une, towards the West, and the Marsica slope facies, towards the East. Both the pre-terrigenous Meso-Cenozoic sequences show a low grade of organic maturity: the Sabini and Tiburtini Mts show R_o values that are less than 0.4%, and the Simbruini–Ernici Range show R_o values that range between 0.5% and 0.65%. Field analysis indicates that the cause of these low maturity levels is that thick sequences of turbidites were never deposited during the Neogene evolution of the Apennine thrust belt. Moreover, Upper Miocene turbiditic deposits also show low maturity levels, with R_o values that are less than 0.5%, indicating that these deposits were never overthrusted by huge volumes of rocks, during the chain building. The slight increase in the maturity level recorded in the Marsica area may be related to local heating along shear zones in areas of strike-slip tectonics.     

Quantitative chemical characterization of vitrinite concentrates using pyrolysis-gas chromatography. Rank variation of pyrolysis products

A series of hand-picked vitrinite samples from the Lower Kittanning Seam, Pennsylvania have been examined using quantitative pyrolysis-gas chromatography. These vitrinites ranged in rank from 0.59 to 1.71% reflectance, a rank range from high volatile C bituminous to low volatile bituminous. High molecular weight pyrolysis products included alkyl aromatic and phenolic compounds. Attempts have been made to correlate the pyrolysis product composition to rank parameters including vitrinite reflectance, volatile matter yield, carbon content, atomic H/C ratio and Rock-Eval determined T_max. Total yield of phenols was found to be strongly and inversely rank related. A clear relationship between C₈ alkyl-benzene yield and rank was not found for the sample set.     

Oil-generating potential of Tertiary coals and other organic-rich sediments of the Nyalau Formation,onshore Sarawak

The oil-generating potential of coals and other organic-rich sediments from the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene Nyalau Formation, the offshore extension of which is believed to be a major source rock, is evaluated. Coals of the Nyalau Formation are typically dominated by vitrinite, with moderate and low amounts of exinite and inertinite, respectively. Significant amounts of clay minerals are present in these coals and those containing between 15 to 65% mineral matter by volume are termed carbargilite. The samples analysed range from sub-bituminous to high-volatile bituminous rank, possessing vitrinite reflectance in the range 0.42% to 0.72%. T_max values range from 425°–450°C which is in good agreement with vitrinite reflectance data. Good oil-generating potential is anticipated from these coals and carbargilites with moderate to rich exinite content (15–35%). This is supported by their high hydrogen indices of up to 400 mgHC/gTOC, Py–GC (S2) pyrograms with n-alkane/alkene doublets extending beyond nC₃₀, and their being in the early to mid-mature oil-window range. Petrographically, the most significant evidence of the oil-generating potential of these coals is the generation of petroleum-like materials (exsudatinite) visible under the microscope. Exsudatinite is a secondary maceral, commonly considered to represent the very beginning of oil generation in coal, which is shown here to also have an important role to play in hydrocarbon expulsion. The precursor of exsudatinite in these coals is the maceral bituminite which readily expels or mobilizes to hydrocarbon-like material in the form of oil smears and/or exsudatinite as observed under the microscope. The maceral bituminite is considered to play a major generative role via early exsudatinite generation, which is considered to facilitate the overall expulsion process in coaly source rocks.