Scaling of fault attributes: A review

The present paper reviews our current understanding of fault dimensions and their scaling laws, with special focus on faults in siliciclastic rocks. The aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research in order to identify strengths and challenges related to the way this topic is being addressed. We here investigate the statistical distributions of different fault attributes, e.g. fault length, displacement, damage zone width, core thickness at different scales and tectonic regimes. Biases related to sampling (resolution effect) and statistical visualization of data are discussed. The interrelationship between different faults attributes is addressed, e.g. fault displacement versus length, and fault core thickness and fault damage zone width. The results of this study show that global statistical relationships for fault attribute populations may not be valid, since the fault attributes at different scales behave differently and the compiled data on fault displacement-length exhibit breaks in the transition between faults at different scales, i.e. from small to medium scale faults at ∼1 m displacement and from medium to large scale faults at ∼1000 m displacement. This may also be the case for fault displacement-core thickness and fault displacement-damage zone width, as slight variation in the relationship can be observed between attribute populations derived from small- and medium-size faults at ∼1 m displacement. These differences may indicate the existence of characteristic length scales in fault populations, which could imply a hierarchical ordering of fault systems. The majority of data in our compiled database show no clear distinction between rocks from different lithologies and tectonic settings. Finally, the mechanical aspects of the processes of faulting with respect to the scaling relationships are discussed. Conceptual diagrams for the evolutionary processes of faulting at different scales based on the observed relationships on the plotted datasets of faults’ main attributes (fault displacement, length, core thickness and damage zone width) are proposed.     

Study on fault-controlled hydrocarbon migration and accumulation process and models in Zhu I Depression

Through the analysis of the faults and their internal structure in Zhu I Depression, it is found that the internal structure of the late fault is obviously segmented vertically. It develops unitary structure(simple fault plane) in shallow layers, binary structure(induced fracture zone in hanging wall and sliding fracture zone in footwall) in middle, layers and ternary structure(induced fracture zone in hanging wall and sliding fracture zone in middle,and induced fracture zone in footwall) in deep layers. Because the induced fracture zone is a high porosity and permeability zone, and the sliding fracture zone is a low porosity and ultra-low permeability zone, the late fault in middle layers has the character of "transporting while sealing". The late fault can transport hydrocarbon by its induced fracture zone in the side of the hanging wall and seal hydrocarbon by its sliding fracture zone in the side of the footwall. In deep layers, the late fault has the character of "dual-transportation", induced fracture zones in both sides of hanging wall and footwall can transport hydrocarbon. The early fault that only developed in the deep layers is presumed to be unitary structure, which plays a completely sealing role in the process of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation due to inactivity during the hydrocarbon filling period. Controlled by hydrocarbon source, early/late faults, sand bodies and traps, two reservoir-forming models of "inverted L" and "stereo-spiral"can be proposed in middle layers, while two reservoir-forming models of "cross fault" and "lateral fault sealing"are developed in the deep layers of Zhu I Depression.     

Growth faults above shale – Seismic-scale outcrop analogues from the Makran foreland,SW Pakistan

The southern Makran fold-thrust belt, Pakistan, displays unique outcrop examples of well-exposed, kilometre-scale, listric growth faults that displace Miocene-age deltaic growth strata by several hundreds of metres to kilometers. The largest growth faults are counter-regional (landward-dipping), bounding major clastic depocentres exposed over areas > 1000 km². Stratal offset along these faults can exceed 1.5 km. Fault-zone thicknesses range between ca. 100 and 400 m, and average fault thickness-displacement ratios are around 1:10. High-resolution satellite data show in unprecedented detail the faults and the stratigraphic architecture of associated growth sequences, which comprise kilometre-scale progradational clinoforms, thick mudstone units and basinwards wedging sandstone-shale deposits. The true vertical thickness of the syn-kinematic record is, in places, up to 8 km, making the outcrop examples equivalent to major growth faulted successions known from seismic data of large deltas, and at least an order of magnitude larger than other outcrop examples. A comparison of the Makran outcrops with seismic-reflection examples offshore NW Borneo reveals distinct similarities in the gross depocentre geometries and internal architecture. The key control for growth faulting is interpreted to result from sedimentary loading, with rapid sedimentary progradation causing the development of rollover synclines by differential compaction and fluid expulsion, and counter-regional growth faults preferentially forming on the basinward side of these synclines. The data and interpretations presented can be used to assess the key parameters that contribute to the development of growth faults and growth successions above shale, reinforcing structural and stratigraphic observations from seismic interpretation and modelling studies in demonstrating their occurrence in exposure.     

Normal faulting vs regional subsidence and sedimentation rate

Normal faults occur in a variety of geodynamic environments, both in areas of subsidence and uplift. Normal faults may have slip rates faster or slower than regional subsidence or uplift rates. The total subsidence may be defined as the sum of the hangingwall subsidence generated by the normal fault and the regional subsidence or uplift rate. Positive total subsidence obviously increases the accommodation space (e.g., passive margins and back-arc basins), in contrast with negative total subsidence (e.g., orogens). Where the hangingwall subsidence rate is faster than the sedimentation rate in cases of both positive and negative total subsidence, the facies and thickness of the syntectonic stratigraphic package may vary from the hangingwall to the footwall. A hangingwall subsidence rate slower than sedimentation rate only results in a larger thickness of the strata growing in the hangingwall, with no facies changes and no morphological step at the surface. The isostatic footwall uplift is also proportional to the amount and density of the sediments filling the half-graben and therefore it should be more significant when the hangingwall subsidence rate is higher than sedimentation rate.     

Cenozoic structural deformation and dynamic processes of the Bohai Bay basin province,China

Cenozoic structures in the Bohai Bay basin province can be subdivided into eleven extensional systems and three strike-slip systems. The extensional systems consist of normal faults and transfer faults. The normal faults predominantly trend NNE and NE, and their attitudes vary in different tectonic settings. Paleogene rifting sub-basins were developed in the hanging walls of the normal faults that were most likely growth faults. Neogene–Quaternary sequences were deposited in both the rifting sub-basins and horsts to form a unified basin province. The extensional systems were overprinted by three NNE-trending, right-lateral strike-slip systems (fault zones). Although the principal displacement zones (PDZ) of the strike-slip fault zones are developed only in the basement and lower basin sequences in some cross sections, the structural deformation characteristics of the upper basin sequences also indicate that they are basement-involved, right-lateral strike-slip fault zones. According to the relationships between faults and sedimentary sequences, the extensional systems were mainly developed from the middle Paleocene to the late Oligocene, whereas the strike-slip systems were mainly developed from the Oligocene to the Miocene. Strike-slip deformation was intensified as extensional deformation was weakened. Extensional deformation was derived from horizontal tension induced by upwelling of hot mantle material, whereas strike-slip deformation was probably related to a regional stress field induced by plate movement.     

Origin of transverse folds in an extensional growth-fault setting: Evidence from an extensive seismic volume in the western Gulf of Mexico

Growth faults in gravity-driven extensional provinces are dominated by coast-parallel trends, but coast-perpendicular (transverse) trends are far less documented. The Clemente–Tomas fault in the inner Texas shelf has corrugations that are transverse to the fault and that plunge downdip. A large (8500 km²), high-quality, 3D seismic survey allows a uniquely encompassing perspective into hanging-wall deformation above this corrugated fault surface. Synextensional strata in the hanging wall are folded into alternating transverse ridges and synclines, typically spaced 10 km apart. Forward modelling in dip profiles of an extensional fault having three ramps produces ramp basin-rollover pairs that compare with the seismically revealed ridges and synclines. As they translated down the undulose fault plane, ramp basins and rollovers were juxtaposed along strike, forming the hanging-wall ridges and synclines observed offshore Texas. Fault-surface corrugations correlate broadly with footwall structure. We infer that corrugations on the Clemente–Tomas fault formed by evacuation of an allochthonous salt canopy emplaced in the late Eocene to early Oligocene. Early salt evacuation (Oligocene) created an undulose topography that influenced incipient Clemente-Tomas fault segments as they merged to form an inherently undulose fault. Late salt evacuation (early Miocene) further deformed this fault surface.     

Cover deformation above steep, basement normal faults: Insights from 2D discrete element modeling

A discrete element model is used to investigate progressive cover deformation above a steep (70°), basement normal fault. The cover materials are homogenous with frictional material behavior. In the model shown here both normal and reverse faults in the cover accommodate displacement on the underlying basement fault. The earliest faults are curved, reverse faults which propagate upwards from the basement fault tip into the proto hanging wall. These are replaced, progressively towards the footwall, by subvertical to steep normal faults and finally by a normal fault which dips at an angle predicted by Mohr-Coulomb theory. Thus, most early, secondary structures are located in the hanging-wall of the final, through-going, fault. This structural evolution produces an asymmetric, triangular zone of deformation above the basement fault tip which superficially resembles that associated with trishear; however, its progressive development is quite different. Results also emphasize that the occurrence of reverse faults in extensional settings is not diagnostic of inversion.     

西太平洋侏罗纪海洋地壳断裂特征及其成因机制*

侏罗纪洋壳为现存最古老的海洋地壳, 残留在地球表面上很少, 目前对于侏罗纪洋壳的断裂特征和构造变形了解很少。本文利用高分辨率的反射地震剖面精细解释了位于西太平洋的侏罗纪洋壳基底、沉积地层和断裂结构, 发现在研究区存在基底断层、沉积断层和垮塌断层三种类型的断裂构造, 并对其走向、倾角、断距等几何参数与变形特征进行了推测和定量研究。研究还发现, 基底断层是洋壳受到板块伸展拉张而产生的, 在后期海底沉积过程中持续发育并错断上覆沉积物, 在海底形成明显的断层陡坎。沉积断层是沉积地层自身重力作用的产物,受到沉积地层岩石性质的控制。垮塌断层是岩浆侵出或者侵入形成海山, 导致洋壳及其上覆沉积局部抬升并向两侧推移, 引起先存的基底断层和沉积断层重新错动产生的。研究区内切断洋壳基底和上覆沉积的活动断层的推测走向大体符合侏罗纪洋壳基底面起伏、重力异常骤变界面以及地磁异常条带等的走向, 表明这些断裂从侏罗纪洋中脊的海底扩张中演变而来, 并且持续活动至今。这些发育在古老洋壳上的断层能够长时间让水进入岩石圈并进入俯冲带及地球内部, 从而促进地球水循环。尽管目前尚未发现这些断裂产生大地震, 但这些断层可能随着板块俯冲而演变成俯冲带地震大断裂, 今后研究应该关注这类断层在靠近海沟之前的演化规律和潜在地震风险。     

南昆嵩地区断裂?构造演化特征及其控制因素

南昆嵩地区是万安盆地西部负向构造单元,其中部N–S向断裂贯穿南北,独特的构造特征使其成为研究万安盆地西部构造演化与区域断裂走滑活动的窗口。将研究区沉积地层划分为3套构造层,通过回剥法绘制南昆嵩地区构造–沉积充填剖面,并计算南昆嵩地区构造沉降量以及构造沉降速率,论述南昆嵩地区构造演化史与沉降过程以及控制因素。研究结果表明:下部构造层和中部构造层中断裂组合样式主要为卷心型断层、“Y”型断层、阶梯状断层和高角度花状构造等,断裂延伸方向大致可分为:N–S向、W–E向和NE–SW向3种;上部构造层断裂不发育,为稳定沉积;在区域走滑断裂以及南海扩张运动的控制下,南昆嵩地区始新世以来构造演化经历4个阶段:初始裂谷期、伸展断拗期、走滑改造期和热沉降期,新生代地层构造性质也表现为以伸展与走滑作用为主–走滑断裂控制–热沉降的三段式转变。     

安达曼海东部凹陷渐新世以来断裂–构造演化特征及其成因探讨

本文研究内容为印度洋东北部边缘海安达曼海的构造演化。利用安达曼海域东部大范围二维地震数据资料及钻井数据,结合区域地质概况以及前人研究成果,选取8条具有代表性的断层并将其划分为一级和二级断裂,运用生长指数法和古落差法对断层进行定量分析,再通过计算安达曼海东部凹陷4条主测线的构造沉降量,探讨构造演化过程。结果表明:选取的生长断层中3条属于一级断裂,跨度大,几乎切穿整个地层,属于控制安达曼海域地区沉降的大断裂;另外5条属于二级断裂,控制构造带的展布情况,属于构造带的分界线。渐新世时期,印度–澳大利亚板块与欧亚板块之间处于软碰撞阶段,断层发育缓慢,上下盘落差较小,生长指数与构造沉降量也处于低值;中新世时期,板块之间的耦合效应不断增强,断层发育速度加快,此时上下盘厚度最大,是形成多处断裂带以及多种断裂样式的关键时期,各地层生长指数和构造沉降量也达到峰值。上新世至今,安达曼海沟–弧–盆体系逐渐稳定,断层活动减弱,断裂上下盘厚度差基本一致,生长指数差异较小,构造沉降量基本稳定在 1 km 左右。     

Salt tectonics and tear faulting in the central part of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt,Iran

The central part of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt is characterized by a series of right-lateral and left-lateral transverse tear fault systems, some of them being ornamented by salt diapirs of the Late Precambrian–Early Cambrian Hormuz evaporitic series. Many deep-seated extensional faults, mainly along N–S and few along NW–SE and NE–SW, were formed or reactivated during the Late Precambrian–Early Cambrian and generated horsts and grabens. The extensional faults controlled deposition, distribution and thickness of the Hormuz series. Salt walls and diapirs initiated by the Early Paleozoic especially along the extensional faults. Long-term halokinesis gave rise to thin sedimentary cover above the salt diapirs and aggregated considerable volume of salt into the salt stocks. They created weak zones in the sedimentary cover, located approximately above the former and inactive deep-seated extensional faults. The N–S to NNE–SSW direction of tectonic shortening during the Neogene Zagros folding was sub-parallel with the strikes of the salt walls and rows of diapirs. Variations in thickness of the Hormuz series prepared differences in the basal friction on both sides of the Precambrian–Cambrian extensional faults, which facilitated the Zagros deformation front to advance faster wherever the salt layer was thicker. Consequently, a series of tear fault systems developed along the rows of salt diapirs approximately above the Precambrian–Cambrian extensional faults. Therefore, the present surface expressions of the tear fault systems developed within the sedimentary cover during the Zagros orogeny. Although the direction of the Zagros shortening could also potentially reactivate the basement faults as strike-slip structures, subsurface data and majority of the moderate-large earthquakes do not support basement involvement. This suggests that the tear fault systems are detached on top of the Hormuz series from the deep-seated Precambrian–Cambrian extensional faults in the basement.     

南海北部琼东南盆地中央峡谷成因新认识

通过对区域构造断裂体系和逐渐连片的高分辨率三维地震资料的精细解析,认识到琼东南盆地中央峡谷的形成机制除了与晚中新世区域构造变动、大规模海平面下降、充足物源供给以及凹槽型古地形特征等因素相关之外,还存在另外一个非常重要因素:峡谷底部早期隐伏断裂带的存在。研究表明:琼东南盆地中央坳陷带发育平行于陆架坡折的大规模深水峡谷,峡谷底部发育大型走滑断层以及走滑断层派生出一系列次级断层形成的地层破碎带,认识到峡谷的形成、规模以及展布方向均受断裂带影响;相应地峡谷的充填及演化亦是受物源、海平面变化、重力流作用等多种因素共同作用和相互叠加的过程。从而为研究经历了裂陷期和坳陷期盆地演化过程形成的大型峡谷提供了科学依据。     

The influence of differential sedimentary loading and compaction on the development of a deltaic rollover

Three-dimensional seismic data and wireline logs from the western Niger Delta were analyzed to reveal the sedimentary and tectonic history of a major deltaic growth-fault depocenter comprising a kilometer-scale rollover anticline. The seismic units of the rollover show a non-uniform thickness distribution with their respective maximum near the main bounding growth-fault on the landward side of the system. This wedge-shaped sediment-storage architecture ultimately reflects the non-uniform creation of accommodation space in the study area that was controlled by 1) the differential compaction of the hanging-wall and footwall strata, 2) the lateral variation of fault-induced tectonic subsidence above the listric master fault, and possibly 3) local subsidence related to the subsurface movement of mobile shale reacting to loading and buoyancy. A sequential three-dimensional decompaction of the interpreted deltaic rollover units allowed to reconstruct and measure the compaction development of the rollover succession through time, documenting that sediment compaction contributed per depositional interval to between 25 and 35% of the generation of depositional space subsequently filled by deltaic sediments. The incremental decompaction of sedimentary units was further used to quantify the cumulative amount of accommodation space at and around the studied rollover that was created by fault movement, shale withdrawal, regional tectonic subsidence, isostasy and changes in sea level. If data on the regional subsidence and eustasy are available, the contribution of these basinwide controls to the generation of depositional space can be subtracted from the cumulative accommodation balance, which ultimately quantifies the amount of space for sediments to accumulate created by fault movement or shale withdrawal. This observation is important in that it implies that background knowledge on subsidence, stratigraphic age and sea-level changes allows to reconstruct and quantify fault movement in syn-tectonic deltaic growth successions, and this solely based on hanging-wall isopach trends independent of footwall information.     

A 3D structural analysis of the Goliat field,Barents Sea,Norway

The Goliat field consists of Middle to Late Triassic reservoirs which exploit an elongate anticline (the Goliat anticline) in the hanging wall of the Troms-Finnmark Fault Complex (TFFC), offshore Norway. The area is affected by a dense network of multiple trending fault populations which historically have inhibited seismic resolution owing to persistent fault shadow. Seismic investigations utilising a multi-azimuth three-dimensional survey (EN0901) allow much crisper delineation of seismic features previously unattainable by vintage single-azimuth surveys. Three dominant fault populations are identified in the area, two of which parallel TFFC segments, the Alke–Goliat (WSW–ENE) and the Goliat–Tornerose (NNE–SSW) segments. The Goliat field is located within a zone of intersection between both segments. A third E–W trending fault population, the Hammerfest Regional population, is likely influenced by the offshore extension of the Trollfjord-Komagelv Fault Complex (TKFZ). A local NW–SE trending fault population, the Goliat Central, affects the Goliat anticline and partitions Alke–Goliat and Goliat–Tornerose subsidiary faults resulting in curvilinear traces. Several cross-cutting relationships between fault populations are observed and may provide fluid compartmentalisation in the reservoirs. Compilation of regional transects and the EN0901 survey provides new insight into the evolution of the Goliat anticline which is underlain by a fault-bound basement terrace that became established in the Late Palaeozoic. The structure is interpreted to have formed due to vertical segmentation of the TFFC and cores the overlying broad anticline. The western limb of the Goliat anticline likely formed by differential compaction, whereas the eastern limb is primarily a result of hanging wall roll-over linked to variable listric to ramp-flat-ramp fault geometry. Rifting took place in the Palaeozoic (Carboniferous to Permian?), and in the Mesozoic, possibly as early as the Late Triassic, with a major event in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Minor reactivations continued into the Late Cretaceous, and possibly the Early Cenozoic. Mesozoic syn-kinematic geometries in the hanging wall of the Goliat–Tornerose TFFC segment are consistent with deposition during up section propagation of a blind fault, over which, a monocline was established and later breached. Jogs (abrupt orientation changes) in fault traces, transverse folds (associated with displacement maxima/minima) and vertical fault jogs suggest the TFFC existed as a greater number of segments prior to amalgamation during the Late Triassic to Jurassic. A phase of Barremian inversion created local compression structures above blind extensional faults, and deeper seated buttressing against large faults. Polygonal faults affect the Late Cretaceous to Early Cenozoic successions.     

4D analogue modelling of transtensional pull-apart basins

Scaled sandbox models were used to investigate the 4D evolution of pull-apart basins formed above underlapping releasing stepovers in both pure strike-slip and transtensional basement fault systems. Serial sectioning and 3D volume reconstruction permitted analysis of the full 3D fault geometries. Results show that very different pull-apart basins are developed in transtension compared to pure strike-slip. Both types of models produced elongate, sigmoidal to rhomboidal pull-apart systems, but the transtensional pull-apart basins were significantly wider and uniquely developed a basin margin of en-echelon oblique-extensional faults. Dual, opposing depocentres formed in the transtensional model whereas a single, central depocentre formed in pure strike-slip. In transtension, a distinct narrow graben system formed above the principal displacement zones (PDZs). Cross-basin fault systems that linked the offset PDZs formed earlier in the transtensional models.Sequential model runs to higher PDZ displacements allowed the progressive evolution of the fault systems to be evaluated. In cross-section, transtensional pull-aparts initiated as asymmetric grabens bounded by planar oblique-extensional faults. With increasing displacement on the PDZs, basin subsidence caused these faults to become concave-upwards and lower in dip angle due to fault block collapse towards the interior of the basin. In addition, strain partitioning caused fault slip to become either predominantly extensional or strike-slip. The models compare closely with the geometries of natural pull-apart basins including the southern Dead Sea fault system and the Vienna Basin, Austria.     

On the role of incompetent strata in the structural evolution of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt,Dezful Embayment,Iran

The Dezful Embayment is the most important fertile oil province of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt. It includes several incompetent strata as basal and intermediate décollement levels that play a significant role on the structural styles and hydrocarbon preservation. Based on the interpretation of seismic profiles, the influence of the Gachsaran Formation and the evaporitic Kalhur Member of the Asmari Formation on the geometry of deformation was investigated in different parts of the Dezful Embayment. Obtained results revealed that the thickness of the incompetent strata plays a crucial role in the formation and geometry of different types of fold structures (e.g. rounded, box, chevron, detachment fold) in the Dezful Embayment. There is a sharp difference between the geometry of surface and deep-seated structures due to the existence of thick intermediate décollements (e.g. Gachsaran and Kalhur) in the Dezful Embayment. Therefore, fault geometry and fold styles in upper and lower parts of these décollements are totally different. In addition, these incompetent strata act as a barrier level against the propagation of deep-seated faults into the overlying layers. Therefore, it seems that most of the faults exposed on the surface have originated from the upper décollement levels in the study area.     

Synthetic seismic illumination of small-scale growth faults,paralic deposits and low-angle clinoforms: A case study of the Triassic successions on Edgeøya,NW Barents Shelf

Fault activity and sandstone-body geometries and spread, all bear significant weight to understanding the potential hydrocarbon systems on the NW Barents Shelf. Synthetic seismic modelling of onshore sedimentary successions provides insight into the seismic resolution and expression of various sedimentological features on Edgeøya: (i) sandy growth basins in pro-delta mudstones (ii) paralic sedimentary deposits and (iii) low-angle tidally influenced progradational successions.Synthetic modelling suggests that the lithological contrast associated with sand-infilled growth basins in pro-deltaic shales, even with offsets as small as 50–75 m, will create distinct geometries in seismic data. Modelling suggests that while optimal 90° illumination, low frequency bands and more typical sedimentary velocities around 2000 m/s will generate very clear discernible growth faults, the angular lithological contrast should generate discernible features even with the high velocities and typical 20–30 Hz frequency band of seismic sections on the NW Barents Shelf. Comparing to actual seismic data in which multiples, noise and in places overburden are influential, it is possible to identify growth-fault geometries more confidently, and to link them to larger planar fault activity.Modelling other features identified in the paralic sedimentary system it is apparent that many of the massive channel or lenticular shaped sandstone bodies should be identifiable in the actual seismic, although their expression is less distinct and more easily misinterpreted than that of growth faults. It is apparent that features such as igneous intrusions, unless imaged in a “perfect” survey, can be difficult to properly identify, particularly near-vertical connections. The velocity contrast creates strong impedance along horizontal sections, but heavily fractured igneous intrusions with lower velocities could easily be assumed to be isolated sandstone bodies. While the modelling appreciates the overall wedging nature of the successions, the simplified lithological observations onshore cannot predict the probable erosion/condensation contrast associated with low-angle clinoforms which are visible in the seismic data, and hence not reproduce them easily in the models.     

The role of permeability evolution in fault zones on the structural and hydro-mechanical characteristics of shortening basins

We examine the role of basin-shortening on the development of structural compartments in passive margin basins. A coupled flow-deformation model is used to follow the evolution of an idealized prismatic basin during lateral shortening. This includes the deformation-induced generation (lateral compaction) and dissipation (hydraulic fracturing) of pore fluid pressures and the resulting natural evolution of an underlying décollement and subsidiary fault structures. This model is used to examine the influence of strata stiffnesses, strain softening, permeability-strain dependence, permeability contrast between layers, and deformation rate on the resulting basin structure and to infer fluid charge within these structures. For a geometry with a permeability contrast at the base of the basin a basal décollement forms as the basin initially shortens, excess pore pressures build from the impeded drainage and hydrofracturing releases fluid mass and resets effective stresses. As shortening continues, thrust faults form, nucleating at the décollement. Elevated pore pressures approaching the lithostat are localized at the hanging wall boundary of the faults. Faults extend to bound blocks that are vertically offset to yield graben-like structural highs and lows and evolve with distinctive surface topography and separate pore pressure signatures. Up-thrust blocks have elevated fluid pressures and reduced effective stresses at their core, and down-thrust blocks the converse. The development of increased permeability on localized fault structures is a necessary condition to yield this up-thrust and down-thrust geometry. In the anti-physical case where evolution of permeability with shear strain is artificially suppressed, pervasive shear develops throughout the basin depth as fluid pressures are stabilized everywhere to the lithostat. Correspondingly, permeability evolution with shear is an important, likely crucial, feedback in promoting localization.     

台西南盆地地质构造特征及油气远景

本文从盆地的基本地质特征入手,分析了台西南盆地的地层、沉积、构造特征及油气条件,在进行盆地的定性分析的基础上,对盆地内的次级构造单元进行了类比,对盆地的含油气远景进行了评价,提出了该盆地的油气勘探方向。     

Controls on turbidite sand deposition during gravity-driven extension of a passive margin: examples from Miocene sediments in Block 4, Angola

In recent years, exploration of the Lower Congo Basin in Angola has focused on the Neogene turbidite sand play of the Malembo Formation. Gravity tectonics has played an important role during deposition of the Malembo Formation and has imparted a well-documented structural style to the post-rift sediments. An oceanward transition from thin-skinned extension through mobile salt and eventually to thin-skinned compressional structures characterises the post-rift sediments. There has been little discussion, however, regarding the influence of these structures on the deposition of the Malembo Formation turbidite sands. Block 4 lies at the southern margin of the Lower Congo Basin and is dominated by the thin-skinned extensional structural style. Using a multidisciplinary approach we trace the post-rift structural and stratigraphic evolution of this block to study the structural controls on Neogene turbidite sand deposition.In the Lower Congo Basin the transition from terrestrial rift basin to fully marine passive margin is recorded by late Aptian evaporites of the Loeme Formation. Extension of the overlying post-rift sequences has occurred where the Loeme Formation has been utilised as a detachment surface for extensional faults. Since the late Cretaceous, the passive margin sediments have moved down-slope on the Loeme detachment. This history of gravity-driven extension is recorded in the post-rift sediments of Block 4. Extension commenced in the Albian in the east of the block and migrated westwards with time. In the west, the extension occurred mainly in the Miocene and generated allochthonous fault blocks or “rafts”, separated by deep grabens. The Miocene extension occurred in two main phases with contrasting slip vectors; in the early Miocene the extension vector was to the west, switching to southwest-directed extension in the late Miocene. Early Miocene faults and half-grabens trend north–south whereas late Miocene structures trend northwest–southeast. The contrast in slip vectors between these two phases emphasises the differences in driving mechanisms: the early Miocene faulting was driven by basinward tilting of the passive margin, but gravity loading due to sedimentary progradation is considered the main driver for the late Miocene extension. The geological evolution of the late Miocene grabens is consistent with southwest-directed extension due to southwest progradation of the Congo fan.High-resolution biostratigraphic data identifies the turbidite sands in Block 4 as early Miocene (17.5–15.5 Ma) and late Miocene (10.5–5.5 Ma) in age. Deposition of these sands occurred during the two main phases of gravity-driven extension. Conditions of low sedimentation rates relative to high fault displacement rates were prevalent in the early Miocene. Seafloor depressions were generated in the hangingwalls of the main extensional faults, ultimately leading to capture of the turbidity currents. Lower Miocene turbidite sand bodies therefore trend north–south, parallel to the active faults. Cross-faults and relay ramps created local topographic highs capable of deflecting turbidite flows within the half grabens. Flow-stripping of turbidity currents across these features caused preferential deposition of sands across, and adjacent to, the highs. Turbidite sands deposited in the early part of the late Miocene were influenced by both the old north–south fault trends and by the new northwest–southeast fault trends. By latest Miocene times turbidite channels crosscut the active northwest–southeast-trending faults. These latest Miocene faults had limited potential to capture turbidity currents because the associated hangingwall grabens were rapidly filled as pro-delta sediments of the Congo fan prograded across the area from the northeast.