STUDY OF THE MODIFICATION OF MULTI-MODEL ENSEMBLE SCHEMES FOR TROPICAL CYCLONE FORECASTS

This study investigates multi-model ensemble forecasts of track and intensity of tropical cyclones over the western Pacific, based on forecast outputs from the China Meteorological Administration, European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Japan Meteorological Agency and National Centers for Environmental Prediction in the THORPEX Interactive Grand Global Ensemble (TIGGE) datasets. The multi-model ensemble schemes, namely the bias-removed ensemble mean (BREM) and superensemble (SUP), are compared with the ensemble mean (EMN) and single-model forecasts. Moreover, a new model bias estimation scheme is investigated and applied to the BREM and SUP schemes. The results showed that, compared with single-model forecasts and EMN, the multi-model ensembles of the BREM and SUP schemes can have smaller errors in most cases. However, there were also circumstances where BREM was less skillful than EMN, indicating that using a time-averaged error as model bias is not optimal. A new model bias estimation scheme of the biweight mean is introduced. Through minimizing the negative influence of singular errors, this scheme can obtain a more accurate model bias estimation and improve the BREM forecast skill. The application of the biweight mean in the bias calculation of SUP also resulted in improved skill. The results indicate that the modification of multi-model ensemble schemes through this bias estimation method is feasible.     

The Application of Flux-Form Semi-Lagrangian Transport Scheme in a Spectral Atmosphere Model

A flux-form semi-Lagrangian transport scheme(FFSL) was implemented in a spectral atmospheric GCM developed and used at IAP/LASG.Idealized numerical experiments show that the scheme is good at shape preserving with less dissipation and dispersion,in comparison with other conventional schemes.Importantly,FFSL can automatically maintain the positive definition of the transported tracers,which was an underlying problem in the previous spectral composite method(SCM).To comprehensively investigate the impact of FFSL on GCM results,we conducted sensitive experiments.Three main improvements resulted:first,rainfall simulation in both distribution and intensity was notably improved,which led to an improvement in precipitation frequency.Second,the dry bias in the lower troposphere was significantly reduced compared with SCM simulations.Third,according to the Taylor diagram,the FFSL scheme yields simulations that are superior to those using the SCM:a higher correlation between model output and observation data was achieved with the FFSL scheme,especially for humidity in lower troposphere.However,the moist bias in the middle and upper troposphere was more pronounced with the FFSL scheme.This bias led to an over-simulation of precipitable water in comparison with reanalysis data.Possible explanations,as well as solutions,are discussed herein.     

Sensitivity of the regional climate model RegCM4.2 to planetary boundary layer parameterisation

This study investigates the performance of two planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameterisations in the regional climate model RegCM4.2 with specific focus on the recently implemented prognostic turbulent kinetic energy parameterisation scheme: the University of Washington (UW) scheme. When compared with the default Holtslag scheme, the UW scheme, in the 10-year experiments over the European domain, shows a substantial cooling. It reduces winter warm bias over the north-eastern Europe by 2 °C and reduces summer warm bias over central Europe by 3 °C. A part of the detected cooling is ascribed to a general reduction in lower tropospheric eddy heat diffusivity with the UW scheme. While differences in temperature tendency due to PBL schemes are mostly localized to the lower troposphere, the schemes show a much higher diversity in how vertical turbulent mixing of the water vapour mixing ratio is governed. Differences in the water vapour mixing ratio tendency due to the PBL scheme are present almost throughout the troposphere. However, they alone cannot explain the overall water vapour mixing ratio profiles, suggesting strong interaction between the PBL and other model parameterisations. An additional 18-member ensemble with the UW scheme is made, where two formulations of the master turbulent length scale in unstable conditions are tested and unconstrained parameters associated with (a) the evaporative enhancement of the cloud-top entrainment and (b) the formulation of the master turbulent length scale in stable conditions are systematically perturbed. These experiments suggest that the master turbulent length scale in the UW scheme could be further refined in the current implementation in the RegCM model. It was also found that the UW scheme is less sensitive to the variations of the other two selected unconstrained parameters, supporting the choice of these parameters in the default formulation of the UW scheme.     

利用区域气候模式RIEMS产品分析日蒸散量及其影响

利用区域气候模式RIEMS输出的各种气象参数,采用了BEF等4种不同方法计算了沂沭河上游流域的潜在蒸散量,并与该流域6个气象站实测蒸发数据计算的陆面潜在蒸散量进行了比较。结果表明,根据平均偏差、平均绝对偏差、均方根差和相关系数指标的综合判断,该4种方法的估测精度从高到低依次为双线性曲面回归经验函数法(BEF)、Hargreaves-Samani(Harg)法、Pristley-Tayler(P-T)法和Penman-Monteith(P-M)法。在时间序列上,4种方法计算的逐日蒸散量与观测值呈相同的变化趋势,但计算值在蒸散发最强、最弱和降水最多、气温最高的7-9月有较大差异。BEF法估测的精度最高,与观测值最接近,Harg法、P-M法和P-T法都有明显的偏高现象。BEF法只需要较少的参数就能得到较高的估测精度,因此可作为利用区域气候模式RIEMS产品计算沂沭河流域蒸散量的首选方法,进而为RIEMS模式中耦合的陆面水文过程模型TOPX提供满足精度要求的日蒸散量驱动参数。     

Evaluation of cloud and precipitation parameterization using a single-column model: A TWP-ICE case study

Cloud and precipitation parameterization schemes are evaluated, and their sensitivity to the method and/or parameters used to determine cloud physical processes is examined using a singlecolumn version of the Unified Model (SCUM). In the experiment for TWP-ICE, cloud fraction is overestimated (underestimated) in the upper (lower) troposphere due to the wet (dry) bias. The precipitation rate is well simulated during the active monsoon period, but overestimated during the suppressed monsoon and clear skies periods. In the moist convection scheme, trigger condition and entrainment process affect the lower tropospheric humidity through the impact on convective occurrence frequency and intensity, respectively. Strengthening the trigger condition and using the adaptive entrainment method alleviate the low-level dry bias. In the microphysics scheme, more large-scale precipitation is produced with prognostic rain, due to rain sedimentation considering vertical velocity of rain drop, than with diagnostic rain. Less ice/snow deposition with the prognostic two-ice category results in lower ice water content and upper-level cloud fraction than with the diagnostic splitting method for the twoice category. In the cloud macrophysics scheme, the prognostic cloud fraction and cloud/ice water content scheme produces a larger cloud fraction and more cloud/ice water content than the diagnostic scheme, mainly due to detrainment from moist convection (cloud source) that surpasses the effect of convective heating and drying (cloud sink). This affects temperature by influencing the radiative, convective, and microphysical processes. The experiment with combined modifications in cloud and precipitation schemes shows that interaction between modified moist convection and cloud macrophysics schemes results in more alleviation of the cold bias not only at the lower levels but also at the upper levels.     

区域GPS网对流层延迟直接推算可降水量研究

针对武汉地区GPS气象网资料进行GPS对流层延迟直接推算可降水量的研究。推导了对流层延迟直接推算可降水量的模型,并对模型结果进行检验。从武汉东湖站GPS对流层延迟与无线电探空可降水量的比较中可知,两者具有很好的相关性,相关系数达到0.931;由该站对流层延迟转换的可降水量与无线电探空可降水量的比较可得,均方根为4.45 mm,相关系数为0.905,对流层延迟转换的可降水量与GPS可降水量的均方根为2.23 mm,相关系数为0.988。说明在没有气象数据的地区,对流层延迟直接推算的可降水量可以作为气象短期预报的参考依据。     

The GRAPES Variational Bias Correction Scheme and Associated Preliminary Experiments

The variational assimilation theory is generally based on unbiased observations. In practice, however, almost all observations suffer from biases arising from observational instruments, radiative transfer operator, precondition of data, and so on. Therefore, a bias correction scheme is indispensable. The current scheme for radiance bias correction in the GRAPES 3DVar system is an offline scheme. It is actually a static correction for the radiance bias before the process of cost function minimization. In consideration of its effects on forecast results, this kind of scheme has some shortcomings. Thus, this study provides a variational bias correction (VarBC) scheme for the GRAPES 3DVar system following Dee’s idea. In the VarBC scheme, the observation operator is modified and a new control variable is defined by taking the predictor coefficients as the control parameters. According to the feature of the GRAPES-3DVAR, an incremental formulation is applied and the original bias correction scheme is maintained in the actual process of observations. The VarBC is designed to co-exist with the original scheme, because it is a dynamic revision to the observational operator on the basis of the old method, i.e., it adjusts the model state vector along with the control parameters to an unbiased state in the process of minimization and the assimilation system remains consistent with available information automatically. Preliminary experimental results show that the mean departures of background-minus-observation and analysis-minus-observation are reduced as expected. In a case study of the heavy rainfall that happened in South China on 11–13 June 2008, the 500-hPa geopotential height is better simulated using the analyzed field from the VarBC as the initial condition.     

Prediction of Indian summer monsoon in short to medium range time scale with high resolution global forecast system (GFS) T574 and T382

Performance of national centers for environmental prediction based global forecast system (GFS) T574/L64 and GFS T382/L64 over Indian region has been evaluated for the summer monsoon season of 2011. The real-time model outputs are generated daily at India Meteorological Department, New Delhi for the forecasts up to 7 days. Verification of rainfall forecasts has been carried out against observed rainfall analysis. Performance of the model is also examined in terms of lower tropospheric wind circulation, vertical structure of specific humidity and precipitable water content. Case study of a monsoon depression is also illustrated. Results obtained show that, in general, both the GFS T382 and T574 forecasts are skillful to capture climatologically heavy rainfall regions. However, the accuracy in prediction of location and magnitude of rainfall fluctuates considerably. The verification results, at the spatial scale of 50 km resolution, in a regional spatial scale and country as a whole, in terms of continuous skill score, time series and categorical statistics, have demonstrated superiority of GFS T574 against T382 over Indian region. Both the model shows bias of lower tropospheric drying and upper tropospheric moistening. A bias of anti-cyclonic circulation in the lower tropospheric level lay over the central India, where rainfall as well as precipitable water content shows negative bias. Considerable differences between GFS T574 and T382 are noticed in the structure of model bias in terms of lower tropospheric wind circulation, vertical structure of specific humidity and precipitable water contents. The magnitude of error for these parameters increases with forecast lead time in both GFS T574 and T382. The results documented are expected to be useful to the forecasters, monsoon researchers and modeling community.     

A global ocean temperature and altimeter data assimilation system for studies of climate variability

 An ocean data assimilation (ODA) system which can assimilate both temperature and altimeter observations has been applied to the global ocean and tested between January 1993–October 1996. A statistical method has been used to convert sea surface height (SSH) anomalies observations from TOPEX/POSEIDON into synthetic temperature profiles. The innovative aspect of this method is the introduction of time dependency in the correlations used to transform the altimeter observations into temperature corrections. The assimilation system is based on a univariate variational optimal interpolation scheme applied to assimilate both in situ and synthetic temperature profiles. In addition, a longer global analysis for the upper-ocean temperature starting from January 1979 and ending November 1997, has been produced to examine the skill of sea temperature assimilation with a rather simple and practical method. The temperature analysis shows encouraging improvement over a corresponding ocean simulation when compared to independent (not assimilated) temperature data both at seasonal and interannual time scales. However, the univariate data assimilation of hydrographic data does not result in an improvement of the velocity field. In fact the assimilation of sparse in situ data can introduce unrealistic spatial variability in the temperature field which affects the velocity field in a negative way. This deficiency is partially overcome when we also assimilate altimeter observations since the coverage is complete and uniform for this data. In particular, our study shows that temperature corrections due to the altimeter signal have a positive impact on the current system in the tropical Pacific. Received: 28 May 2000 / Accepted: 6 November 2000     

Accurate Derivation of Total and Stratospheric Vertical Columns of NO2 from Ground-Based Zenith-Sky Measurements

A new method for retrieving the vertical profile of NO2 from ground-based measurements is applied to four months of measurements made at Aberdeen (57°N) during part of SESAME from November 1994 to April 1995. The retrieval method is shown to be an invaluable tool both for deriving the true NO2 vertical column and for removing the tropospheric contribution to the vertical column. This dramatically reduces the effects of tropospheric pollution in the observations and enables a more appropriate comparison with stratospheric 3-D model results. The comparison confirms the accuracy of the model's transport and its reactive nitrogen photochemistry, although there are some detailed discrepancies.     

Comparison of Liquid Water Content Retrievals for Airborne Millimeter-Wave Radar with Different Particle Parameter Schemes

In the application of the physical iterative method to retrieve millimeter-wave radar liquid water content(LWC) and liquid water path(LWP), particle parameter scheme is the main factor affecting retrieval performance. In this paper, synchronous measurements of an airborne millimeter-wave radar and a hot-wire probe in stratus cloud are used to compare the LWC retrievals of the oceanic and continental particle parameter scheme with diameter less than 50μm and the particle parameter scheme with diameter less than 500μm and 1500μm(scheme 1, scheme 2, scheme 3, and scheme4, respectively). The results show that the particle parameter scheme needs to be selected according to the reflectivity factor when using the physical iterative method to retrieve the LWC and LWP. When the reflectivity factor is less than-30 d BZ, the retrieval error of scheme 1 is the minimum. When the reflectivity factor is greater than-30 d BZ, the retrieval error of scheme 4 is the minimum. Based on the reflectance factor value, the LWP retrievals of scheme 4 are closer to the measurements, the average relative bias is 5.2%, and the minimum relative bias is 4.4 %. Compared with other schemes,scheme 4 seems to be more useful for the LWC and LWP retrieval of stratus cloud in China.     

An improved method for correction of air temperature measured using different radiation shields

The variation of air temperature measurement errors using two different radiation shields （DTR502B Vaisala,Finland,and HYTFZ01,Huayun Tongda Satcom,China） was studied.Datasets were collected in the field at the Daxing weather station in Beijing from June 2011 to May 2012.Most air temperature values obtained with these two commonly used radiation shields were lower than the reference records obtained with the new Fiber Reinforced Polymers （FRP） Stevenson screen.In most cases,the air temperature errors when using the two devices were smaller on overcast and rainy days than on sunny days; and smaller when using the imported rather than the Chinese shield.The measured errors changed sharply at sunrise and sunset,and reached maxima at noon.Their diurnal variation characteristics were,naturally,related to changes in solar radiation.The relationships between the record errors,global radiation,and wind speed were nonlinear.An improved correction method was proposed based on the approach described by Nakamura and Mahrt （2005） （NM05）,in which the impact of the solar zenith angle （SZA） on the temperature error is considered and extreme errors due to changes in SZA can be corrected effectively.Measurement errors were reduced significantly after correction by either method for both shields.The error reduction rate using the improved correction method for the Chinese and imported shields were 3.3％ and 40.4％ higher than those using the NM05 method,respectively.     

风廓线雷达对大气折射率结构常数的探测研究

基于湍流散射理论,构建了风廓线雷达（WPR）强度信息对大气折射率结构常数的估算方法。经过对WPR多种探测模式探测数据的估算分析,发现雷达参数的确切选用、信噪比(SNR)测量方法的合理性以及信号累积得益的认定对大气折射率结构常数的准确估算有较大的影响,为此提出适合WPR多种探测模式对该估算值规范化处理方法。利用北京两部对流层风廓线雷达五种探测模式于2005年获取的部分观测数据,进行了规范化计算及对比分析。结果表明,邻近时刻的不同风廓线雷达探测估算结果有较好的一致性,其垂直分布结构合理,呈指数形式, 统计结果与国内外的分析研究结果较为吻合。     

对流层增暖热带放大现象：基于FGOALS-g3的模拟研究

热带地区的湿绝热过程会放大地表的增暖幅度,在约200 hPa高度上产生增暖峰值,该现象被称为“热带对流层放大”。热带对流层放大是气候变化的显著特征之一,是检验气候模式性能的重要指标。本文基于RSS4.0卫星数据和ERA5.1再分析资料,系统分析了FGOALS-g3模式对气温变化特别是热带对流层放大的模拟能力,并通过新旧版本模式（FGOALS-g3与FGOALS-g2）的比较指出了新版本模式模拟技巧的提升;通过比较FGOALS-g3历史模拟试验与GAMIL3单独大气模式AMIP试验结果,研究了海气耦合过程对模拟结果的影响。结果表明,FGOALS-g3能够合理再现观测中的全球对流层显著增温趋势,但模拟的增温趋势偏强,这与气候系统内部变率以及两代气候系统模式所使用的历史气候外强迫差异有关。其对于观测中热带平均增温廓线以及热带对流层放大的空间分布均表现出良好的模拟性能,模拟的热带对流层放大现象的量值大小存在正偏差,与模拟的对流层低层温度变化偏强有关。FGOALS-g3较FGOALS-g2在性能上有一定提升,主要表现为增加了对于火山气溶胶强迫的响应,并在热带对流层放大的空间分布及平均气温趋势廓线...     

地基GPS技术在广东区域水汽分布研究中的应用

利用广东省连续运行卫星定位服务系统（GDCORS）观测资料,采用地基GPS／MET技术线路,用Bemese软件平台求解各参考站上的对流层天顶总延迟和湿延迟。通过推导湿延迟与大气可降水汽含量之间的转换关系得到GPS各测站大气水汽含量。试验结果表明,GPS／MET技术可获得覆盖广东省范围的高时空分辨率的大气水汽总含量分布图。     

Long-Term Trend in Ozone and Erythemal UV at Indian Latitudes

The role of atmospheric ozone to protect the living organisms and vegetation from the harmful effects of ultraviolet irradiation is well known. Depletion of the ozone layer is a great threat to the human society. In this paper we have discussed the lethal effects of ozone depletion and have presented the ozone and UV-B scenarios from 1979 to 2005 at different Indian latitudes using satellite data. The erythemal UV irradiance data obtained from Nimbus-7 and Earth probe total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) and the tropospheric and stratospheric ozone data obtained from the convective cloud differential (CCD) method have been used to study the variability of erythemal UV irradiance and the stratospheric and tropospheric column ozone, respectively, over a period from 1979 to 2005. The observed results along with the expected upper and lower tolerance limits for tropospheric and stratospheric ozone, respectively, for different Indian latitudes, which have been estimated statistically using monthly mean CCD ozone data from 1979 to 2005 have been discussed in detail.     

高光谱红外云检测方案阈值的客观判定方法

GRAPES3Dvar大气红外高光谱云检测采用McNally andWatts(2003)的晴空通道方案,该方案基于模拟观测与实际观测偏差(B-O)进行检测,其中阈值的选取与预报模式有关。传统对云检测阈值的选取多采用主观判定方法,如图像对比分析等。文章在主观判定的基础上提出两种新的较为客观的阈值判定方法:(1)视场偏差分析:通过分析模拟观测与实际观测之间偏差的垂直分布,观察不同阈值下的云顶高度来评估阈值选取的合理性;(2)云检测指标评分:通过建立一系列云检测指标,对其进行评分来选取最优的阂值。并结合上述三种方法,将其应用于IASI辐射率资料的云检测阈值判定,其中梯度阈值对最后的云检测效果影响不大,保持与欧洲中心相同的值;偏差阈值则采用综合的分析方法进行判定,从而克服了单纯利用云图对比而带来的视觉误差。分析结果表明,偏差阈值取2.0 K、窗区通道梯度阈值取0.4 K,非窗区通道梯度阈值取0.02 K时云检测的效果最好。最后进行的为期1个月的试验显示:通过对比不同云检测偏差阈值的同化效果,选取的云检测闾值是有效的。     

对流层O3区域输送的定量评估方法研究

主要介绍一个可用于化学输送模式的对流层O3来源和过程追踪技术。该方法可定量估算不同区域的光化学反应通过输送过程对目标地区O3浓度的贡献,并且克服了光化学非线性特征对估算结果的影响。以研究2001年中国南部和北部光化学生成O3的输送为例,通过与改进的敏感性分析方法比较,系统评估了该方法的合理性。比较结果表明,两种方法的估算结果在水平、垂直分布和典型输送个例等方面具有良好的一致性,说明污染物来源和过程追踪技术可以为量化区域输送对目标地区O3浓度的影响提供合理结果。个例模拟分析的结果也表明,中国南部和北部光化学生成的O3可以通过输送对整个东亚O3产生重要影响,并且在不同的季节呈现不同的特征。     

What controls equatorial Atlantic winds in boreal spring?

The factors controlling equatorial Atlantic winds in boreal spring are examined using both observations and general circulation model (GCM) simulations from the coupled model intercomparison phase 5. The results show that the prevailing surface easterlies flow against the attendant pressure gradient and must therefore be maintained by other terms in the momentum budget. An important contribution comes from meridional advection of zonal momentum but the dominant contribution is the vertical transport of zonal momentum from the free troposphere to the surface. This implies that surface winds are strongly influenced by conditions in the free troposphere, chiefly pressure gradients and, to a lesser extent, meridional advection. Both factors are linked to the patterns of deep convection. Applying these findings to GCM errors indicates, that, consistent with the results of previous studies, the persistent westerly surface wind bias found in most GCMs is due mostly to precipitation errors, in particular excessive precipitation south of the equator over the ocean and deficient precipitation over equatorial South America. Free tropospheric influences also dominate the interannual variability of surface winds in boreal spring. GCM experiments with prescribed climatological sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) indicate that the free tropospheric influences are mostly associated with internal atmospheric variability. Since the surface wind anomalies in boreal spring are crucial to the development of warm SST events (Atlantic Niños), the results imply that interannual variability in the region may rely far less on coupled air–sea feedbacks than is the case in the tropical Pacific.     

积云参数化方案对热带降水年循环模态模拟的影响

本文利用中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体力学数值模拟国家重点实验室( LASG)发展的大气环流模式(SAMIL),采用Zhang-McFarlane (ZM)和Tiedtke (TDK)两种积云对流参数化方案,讨论了积云对流参数化方案对热带降水年循环模态模拟的影响.结果表明,两种积云对流参数化方案均能合理再现...