Quaternary Moraines vs Catastrophic Rock Avalanches in the Karakoram Himalaya, Northern Pakistan

A history and conception of glacial events for the central Karakoram Himalaya, proposed some 80 years ago by Giotto Dainelli, are largely accepted today. However, certain deposits identified as terminal moraine complexes marking glacial episodes were actually emplaced by rock avalanches. In the Skardu and Shigar intermontane basins of Baltistan, at least 15 rock avalanche events were previously mapped as moraine or till. Criteria used for distinguishing these catastrophic landslide deposits emphasize homogeneous lithology of rubble and matrix, clast shape, facies characteristics, the large scale unity of emplacement, and morphological relations to valley topography. The deposits of three events, at Katzarah, Satpura, and the north end of Shigar Valley, have been reconstructed in detail. Thick supraglacial debris does not result in similar deposits. Extensive valley fills, river terraces, large sediment fans, and lacustrine sediments formerly attributed to late-glacial conditions are reinterpreted as postglacial events involving rock avalanches that interrupted fluvial development. Existing reconstructions of glaciations are left in doubt, especially late-glacial events in the central Karakoram, as are the roles assigned to Karakoram, main Indus Valley, and western Himalayan ice.     

青藏高原古高速远程滑坡沉积学特征研究

高速远程滑坡运动学机理是国际工程地质领域亟待解决的重大前沿性关键科学问题。为探索高速远程滑坡的运动学机理,以青藏高原不同构造背景下的三大高速远程滑坡为研究对象,通过现场工程地质调查与分析,详细探讨了滑坡运动路径上所揭露出的各种表面与剖面沉积学特征,结果显示:(1)沿滑坡运动路径上依次可见大型堆积平台、纵向脊、横向脊、堆积丘等表面沉积学地貌的规律性分布,根据各类地貌的空间分布特征,可将滑坡区自后向前划分为源区、流通区和堆积区;(2)剖面上则可见反粒序堆积结构的展布,自上而下依次可划分为硬壳层、主体层和基底层,在硬壳层和主体层中可见层序保留、拼贴构造等低扰动性沉积学特征分布,在基底层中则可见其与下伏原沟谷堆积层强相互作用形成的底辟构造、小型褶皱等剖面沉积学特征分布。基于高速远程滑坡运动路径上各类表面和剖面沉积学地貌的空间展布特征,初步提出青藏高原关键地带高速远程滑坡的运动与停积就位机制,即滑体自源区失稳后主体表现为一种快速的低扰动性的整体性剪切运动过程,其流通区以快速拉张运动为主,堆积区则以快速推挤运动为主;当滑体下伏层中含水量较高时,伴随着滑体底部摩阻力的迅速降低,滑体表现出明显的侧限扩离运动。     

Landscape and sedimentary response to catastrophic debris avalanches, western Taranaki, New Zealand

Catastrophic volcanic debris avalanches reshape volcanic edifices with up to half of pre-collapse cone volumes being removed. Deposition from this debris avalanche deposit often fills and inundates the surrounding landscape and may permanently change the distribution of drainage networks. On the weakly-incised Mt. Taranaki ring-plain, volcanic debris avalanche deposits typically form a large, wedge shape (in plan view), over all flat-lying fans. Following volcanic debris avalanches a period of intense re-sedimentation commonly begins on ring-plain areas, particularly in wet or temperate climates. This is exacerbated by large areas of denuded landscape, ongoing instability in the scarp/source region, damming of river/stream systems, and in some cases inherent instability of the volcanic debris avalanche deposits. In addition, on Mt. Taranaki, the collapse of a segment of the cone by volcanic debris avalanche often generates long periods of renewed volcanism, generating large volumes of juvenile tephra onto unstable and unvegetated slopes, or construction of new domes with associated rock falls and block-and-ash flows. The distal ring-plain impact from these post-debris avalanche conditions and processes is primarily accumulation of long run-out debris flow and hyperconcentrated flow deposits with a variety of lithologies and sedimentary character. Common to these post-debris avalanche units is evidence for high-water-content flows that are typically non-cohesive. Hence sedimentary variations in these units are high in lateral and longitudinal exposure in relation to local topography. The post-collapse deposits flank large-scale fans and hence similar lithological and chronological sequences can form on widely disparate sectors of the ring plain. These deposits on Mt. Taranaki provide a record of landscape response and ring-plain evolution in three stages that divide the currently identified Warea Formation: 1) the deposition of broad fans of material adjacent to the debris avalanche unit; 2) channel formation and erosion of Stage 1 deposits, primarily at the contact between debris avalanche deposits and the Stage 1 deposits and the refilling of these channels; and 3) the development of broad tabular sheet flows on top of the debris avalanche, leaving sediments between debris avalanche mounds. After a volcanic debris avalanche, these processes represent an ever changing and evolving hazard-scape with hazard maps needing to be regularly updated to take account of which stage the sedimentary system is in.     

The Oeschinensee rock avalanche,Bernese Alps,Switzerland: a co-seismic failure 2300 years ago?

Landslide deposits dam Lake Oeschinen (Oeschinensee), located above Kandersteg, Switzerland. However, past confusion differentiating deposits of multiple landslide events has confounded efforts to quantify the volume, age, and failure dynamics of the Oeschinensee rock avalanche. Here we combine field and remote mapping, topographic reconstruction, cosmogenic surface exposure dating, and numerical runout modeling to quantify salient parameters of the event. Differences in boulder lithology and deposit morphology reveal that the landslide body damming Oeschinensee consists of debris from both an older rock avalanche, possibly Kandertal, as well as the Oeschinensee rock avalanche. We distinguish a source volume for the Oeschinensee event of 37 Mm³, resulting in an estimated deposit volume of 46 Mm³, smaller than previous estimates that included portions of the Kandertal mass. Runout modeling revealed peak and average rock avalanche velocities of 65 and 45 m/s, respectively, and support a single-event failure scenario. ³⁶Cl surface exposure dating of deposited boulders indicates a mean age for the rock avalanche of 2.3 ± 0.2 kyr. This age coincides with the timing of a paleo-seismic event identified from lacustrine sediments in Swiss lakes, suggesting an earthquake trigger. Our results help clarify the hazard and geomorphic effects of rare, large rock avalanches in alpine settings.     

高速远程滑坡颗粒流研究进展

颗粒流是高速远程滑坡物质演化过程的一个重要阶段,也是从细观角度揭示其超常运动特性的重要手段.颗粒流所采用的主要研究方法以及取得的重要理论成果,可以为高速远程滑坡动力学机理的研究提供重要的技术手段和理论支持.本文聚焦颗粒流研究进展,从颗粒流基本概念、流态特征及流变本构模型、颗粒流粒径分选机制等方面进行了系统梳理;进而,从理论、实验及数值计算模型3个方面对高速远程滑坡研究中颗粒流理论及方法的应用进行了系统性述评;在此基础上,提出了从颗粒流角度研究高速远程滑坡动力学机理涉及的关键科学问题:高速远程滑坡高流动性的起源涉及哪些物理过程？如何量化和模拟其多分散性和破碎过程？如何量化描述颗粒尺寸分布的时空演变及其与流动的耦合？如何从其沉积特征中探究流动的传播机制？针对这些问题,从基于沉积学特征的颗粒流物理力学过程、考虑尺度效应的颗粒流动力学特性研究、基于颗粒流力学过程的滑坡运动机理及其本构模型、新技术新方法的应用4个方面提出下一步应重点开展的研究工作.      

Two‐layer scree/snow‐avalanche triggered by rockfall (Eastern Alps): Significance for sedimentology of scree slopes

Rockfalls that trigger scree‐laden snow avalanches are common in mountain ranges, but the resulting avalanche development and its role in understanding the sedimentology of scree slopes are rarely described in detail. On Riepenwand (2774 m above sea‐level, Kalkkögel range, Alps), on 6 May 2011 a 5800 m³ rockfall of dolostone detached from the flank of a gorge in the upper part of the mountain. After first collapsing into the gorge, the fragmented rock mass fell down freely for 150 m onto a talus covered by coarse‐granular snow. Rockfall impact triggered a medium‐scale avalanche that developed: (i) a lower layer A of entrained, pure snow; and (ii) an upper layer B of clay‐sized to boulder‐sized fragments mixed with snow. This ‘two‐layer scree/snow avalanche’ halted in the distal slope segment of the talus. Boulders within layer B mainly came to rest in the distal part of the avalanche deposit. Fragments smaller than cobble‐size grade did not show obvious downslope segregation. With snowmelt, the rockfall fragments dispersed in layer B were concentrated to a clast‐supported veneer that was draped over the older talus surface upon slower melting of avalanche layer A. In the grain‐size fraction ≤16 mm, a mean of 5 wt% matrix (silt‐sized to clay‐sized grains) of the rockfall‐derived scree of layer B is similar to a mean matrix content of 7 wt% within stratified talus slopes of the Kalkkögel range. This similarity suggests that a major share of matrix – widespread in stratified talus – stems from rockfalls. The characteristics of the scree veneer as melt‐lag of a scree‐laden snow avalanche will be blurred with time. Fossil talus successions may contain a substantial proportion of scree carried down by snow avalanches. The formation of a distinct sedimentary facies of snow avalanche‐deposited scree is impeded by processes of redeposition and deposit modification on talus.     

The Acheron rock avalanche, Canterbury, New Zealand—morphology and dynamics

The 1100-year-old Acheron rock avalanche deposit lies in an active tectonic setting in Canterbury, New Zealand, and has a volume of ten million cubic metres and a runout distance 3.5 km. The deposit comprises intensely fragmented greywacke rock, and the processes of intense rock fragmentation during runout are postulated to have generated an isotropic dispersive stress. Dynamic simulation shows that the runout can be explained as a flow of dry granular material with a normal coefficient of friction, if the presence of an isotropic dispersive stress within the moving rock debris throughout the runout is assumed. The dispersive stress distribution required to model the rock avalanche runout and match velocities calculated from run-up traces is closely similar to that used to simulate the runout of the much larger Falling Mountain rock avalanche in a similar lithologic and tectonic setting. Both events thus behaved in a fundamentally similar fashion.     

冀西北地区古元古代含石墨变质地层岩石矿物地球化学特征与成矿机制研究

冀西北地区已发现多处大、中型晶质石墨矿，具有良好的区域变质石墨矿成矿地质条件与找矿潜力。古元古代红旗营子岩群太平庄岩组、东井子岩组和集宁岩群下白窑岩组为该地区重要的成矿层位，本文对这些含矿地层岩石进行了详细的岩相学及地球化学等方面的研究，并对石墨矿成因机制进行了探讨。研究结果表明，红旗营子岩群含矿岩石为石墨石榴黑云斜长片麻岩，其原岩是以泥岩、黏土质砂岩、砂岩及碳酸盐岩为主的岩石组合，局部富含有机质，表明这些含碳岩石的成熟度较高，为温暖潮湿-半干燥气候条件下海陆交互-滨浅海相沉积；集宁岩群下白窑岩组含矿岩石为石墨石榴斜长变粒岩，其原岩是以内陆湖-滨浅海相沉积的成熟度较高的泥岩、黏土质砂岩、砂岩、石英砂岩为主的岩石组合，局部富含有机质，形成于半干燥-干燥炎热气候下氧化-弱氧化沉积环境，在沉积过程中伴有热水参与。石墨矿碳质成分均来源于原岩本身的原始沉积的有机碳。矿床受层位、岩相和岩性控制，经区域变质作用，有机碳结晶形成石墨矿，并在断裂的控制下出露于地表或近地表。     

陕北侏罗纪煤田三角洲平原沉积环境及其岩石力学特征

三角洲平原沉积环境是陕北侏罗纪煤田煤炭资源的主要形成环境之一,为获得不同环境煤层顶板岩石力学参数特征,进一步探究沉积环境与岩石力学特征之间的关系,首先从区域沉积环境分析入手,然后运用岩心精细描述、沉积构造分析、地球物理测井分析等技术,识别微相、划分顶板沉积微相类型及其组合特征;之后对不同沉积环境中不同位置、不同岩性的岩石进行系统地分层采样和测试分析;最后综合分析煤层顶板各沉积微相的岩石力学特征。结果表明,煤层直接顶板以泥岩、粉砂质泥岩为主,形成于三角洲平原亚相中的沼泽、湖泊沉积微相,局部见粉砂岩、细粒砂岩形成于分流河道和天然堤微相;基本顶主要以中-细粒砂岩为主,形成于分流河道沉积微相;沉积环境不仅控制煤层顶板岩性分布而且控制岩石力学参数及其含水层富水性的分布,其中,湖泊、沼泽相泥岩顶板区是顶板支护的重点部位,多期分流河道砂岩叠置顶板区是未来矿井防治水以及探放水的重点区域。      

南川铝土矿沉积相特征

通过野外观察,在南川地区铝土矿含矿岩系中识别出一层底砾岩和一层分流河道沉积,结合岩性特征和B、Sr、Ba、Ga、Rb、MnO、TiO2等的地球化学特征,对南川地区铝土矿含矿岩系的沉积相进行了划分。认为南川地区铝土矿形成于中二叠世海侵过程中的陆缘近海湖环境,为沉积型铝土矿床。．     

中条山地区地质特征及铜矿床类型

中条山地区出露的地层主要有新太古界涑水麻粒岩-角闪岩相杂岩、绛县群角闪-绿片岩岩相变质岩、古元古界中条群绿片岩相变质岩、担山石群变质砾岩-石英岩、西阳河群安山岩、沉积岩和中新元古界沉积岩。区内岩浆作用强烈，以绛县期、西阳河期火山喷发、涑水期岩浆侵入为主，火山作用为铜矿床的形成提供了大量的成矿物质。深断裂构造和褶皱构造，特别是其交汇处为成矿物质的运移和沉淀提供了空间。按成因该区铜矿床可分为次火山-火山气液再造型、远火山-沉积变质型、沉积变质型、层控热液型和热液脉型铜矿床，代表性矿床有铜矿峪、筐子沟、胡家峪、横岭关、落家河等矿庆。     

辽河东部凹陷火山岩相测井响应特征及储集意义

在郯庐断裂多期构造活动作用下,辽河坳陷东部凹陷发生了多期火山活动,致使中基性火山岩广泛发育,以玄武岩和粗面岩为主,可分为5相14亚相。以常规测井曲线特征为基础,结合电成像的分析,识别出了爆发相（火山碎屑流和热基浪亚相）、溢流相（玻质碎屑岩、板状熔岩流和复合熔岩流亚相）、侵出相（内带、中带和外带亚相）和火山沉积相（含外碎屑和再搬运火山碎屑沉积亚相）10种岩相/亚相：火山碎屑流亚相具"焊接"特征,热基浪亚相具层理特征;玻质碎屑岩亚相具高CNL的特征,板状熔岩流亚相DEN、CNL和AC测井曲线显示微齿平滑的特征,而复合熔岩流亚相测井曲线呈指状叠加的特征;侵出相内带→中带→外带电阻率逐渐减小;含外碎屑和再搬运火山碎屑沉积亚相GR值范围不同,并且再搬运火山碎屑沉积亚相具水平层理特征。火山岩相控制原生储集空间的类型,并作用于后期的次生改造,从而影响储层的物性、储集性和有效性。复合熔岩流亚相储层孔隙发育,物性好,但由于内部纵向上结构不一致,非均质性强,因而储层含油性差。火山碎屑流亚相内部在纵向上岩性及结构相对一致,因而储层物性相对均一、分布集中,为有利的火山岩储层,可以作为东部凹陷进一步勘探开发的有利相带。     

黔北务正道地区沉积型铝土矿富集成矿主控因素分析

黔北务正道地区铝土矿是我国超大型铝土矿矿床,该矿床为沉积型铝土矿,其成矿过程主要受到沉积相和海平面变化的影响。通过对研究区铝土矿含矿岩系岩性和地球化学分析,认为该区铝土矿主要形成于湖泊相滨浅湖亚相,即铝土矿形成于淡水环境,含矿岩系的绿泥石黏土岩和铝土岩形成于扇三角洲和潮坪相。水动力条件和沉积分异作用控制着铝土矿类型:颗粒状铝土矿形成于滨湖等水动力较强的区域,而土状铝土矿形成与水动力较弱的浅湖区。海平面上升旋回以绿泥石岩和铝土岩沉积为主,而海平面下降旋回以铝土矿沉积为主。海平面下降旋回的跨时远大于海平面上升旋回,这也说明铝土矿的形成是漫长的风化过程。研究区铝土矿含矿岩系最多可识别出3个海平面升降旋回,这3个旋回与研究区周缘同期的碳酸盐岩和碎屑岩沉积旋回具有一致性和可对比性。     

Characterisation of a Pleistocene debris-avalanche deposit in the Tenteniguada Basin,Gran Canaria Island,Spain

We studied a large debris-avalanche deposit of Pleistocene age in the Tenteniguada Basin, Gran Canaria Island, Spain. This deposit, which is well preserved because it is mostly covered by basanite lava flows, has distinctive matrix and block facies, hummocky topography and internal structures typical of debris avalanches. However, neither syneruptive lavas nor some characteristic features of volcanic debris-avalanche deposits, such as a stratovolcano edifice or a horseshoe-shaped crater, are present. The occurrence of internal features characteristic of volcanic avalanche deposits could be attributed to the volcanic materials involved in the movement rather than to the triggering of the avalanche during a volcanic eruption. The conditioning factors are shown to be associated with specific structural and hydrological conditions, such as the presence of old volcanic domes, strength reduction of the rocks, effective stress decrease, active gully erosion and water table rise during Pleistocene humid episodes. We finally suggest that the possible triggering factor of the avalanche was a neighbouring volcanic or tectonic earthquake.     

滇东南含锰建造沉积相及聚锰条件分析

在对滇东南区域地质及锰矿研究成果综合分析的基础上, 以中三叠世拉丁期含锰建造的沉积相研究为基础, 把滇东南的法郎组中的锰矿总结为碎屑岩建造中的斗南式锰矿和碳酸盐岩建造中的白显式锰矿两类, 从解析典型锰矿床的沉积格局入手, 研究了中三叠世拉丁期典型矿床的岩相古地理特征。斗南锰矿形成于礁(滩)后泻湖的滨浅海碎屑岩建造相区、台地碳酸盐建造相区和斜坡碎屑岩建造相区中, 在斜坡碎屑岩建造相内多具有异地堆积的重力流沉积。白显锰矿形成于局限台地水体较为滞流的泻湖相-潮坪相中。在不同沉积格架下, 海水物理化学条件、水动力环境、生物作用和同生断裂活动是影响聚锰作用的重要因素。     

海南岛福山凹陷古近系流沙港组沉积相

古近系流沙港组沉积时期是海南岛福山凹陷的主要成盆期,沉陷幅度较大,地势较陡,由此导致流沙港组深水湖泊沉积和辫状河三角洲沉积相当发育。通过对岩心、测井和地震等资料的综合分析,分别对流沙港组3个岩性段的沉积相进行了研究。单井沉积相和平面沉积相分析表明流沙港组主要发育辫状河三角洲相和湖泊相,并可进一步划分出7种亚相和13种微相。流三段沉积时期辫状河三角洲沉积最为发育,约占研究区总面积的一半,仅在研究区北部为半深湖亚相—深湖亚相分布区。流二段沉积时期是福山凹陷最大湖侵期,深水湖泊相最为发育,研究区北半部几乎全为深湖亚相—半深湖亚相分布区。流二段沉积之后,凹陷周缘发生较大范围隆升,因此,流一段沉积时期的沉积范围比流二段沉积时期小得多,但其沉积相展布格局与流二段沉积时期仍比较相似。通过对ZTR指数(代表锆石、金红石、电气石三种重矿物在透明重矿物中所占的比例)等值线图、砂(砾)岩百分含量等值线图及沉积相展布格局等分析认为,流沙港组沉积时期的物源主要来自南方的海南隆起,东、西方向还存在2个次要物源。     

Formation mechanism and evolution process of the Chada rock avalanche in Southeast Tibet,China

The Chada rock avalanche is a prehistoric high-elevation giant rock landslide located in the Boshula Mountains, Lhorong County, Southeast Tibet. It is composed of conglomerates with a volume of 6.62?×?10⁶ m³ and has a height difference of 1450 m and a transport distance of 3155 m. The accumulational landform shows characteristics indicating rock avalanches. With a unique red conglomerate as the marker of landslide movement, we combined the results of geological surveys, aerial surveys, and engineering geological drilling to determine the entrainment and geomorphic features of the rock avalanche. The rock avalanche was divided into the main scarp, entrainment zone (residual deposit, mixed deposit, and impact fragmentation areas), transport zone (compressed, local landslide, and longitudinal ridge areas), and deposit zone. The sequence of deposits in the valley indicates that the rock avalanche formed before the first-stage terrace and after the second-stage terrace. Combined with 3D numerical simulation, four movement stages were obtained: (1) the rock mass was broken and disintegrated due to progressive failure, initiating high-speed sliding; (2) the sliding mass scraped the thick previous slope material and formed oblique ridges by forward extrusion and lateral friction; (3) the 4.95?×?10⁶ m³ sliding mass was compressed and decelerated to form bending ridges, and the 1.67?×?10⁶ m³ sliding mass continued to move through the channel; and (4) the sliding mass extended to form longitudinal ridges in the channel and hummocks in the valley. The rock avalanche accelerated three times and decelerated three times during its motion.

     

新疆拜城县察尔其铜矿床的沉积环境及成矿作用分析

察尔其铜矿位于新疆拜城县,是区域滴水铜矿带的东段。铜矿体产于新生界中新统-上新统康村组第四段(N_(1-2)k~4)的第3亚段和第5亚段;铜矿化主要产于杂色砂岩及其与泥灰岩接触部位附近。矿区含矿层主要有B矿层和C矿层,B矿层划分出3条铜矿体,其中B1、B2号矿体为主矿体;C矿层矿体划分出5个矿体,其中C1号矿体为主矿体,也是察尔其铜矿区的主矿体。矿区新近系康村组含矿层沉积特征为扇三角洲前缘亚相的水下分流河道微相和分流间湾微相,滨浅湖亚相的浅湖砂坝微相和浅湖泥微相,局部出现深湖相。康村组沉积物来自再旋回造山带物源区,含矿砂岩的碎屑来自灰岩、泥灰岩、砂岩、泥岩、变质岩、深成岩、火山岩等,与北邻天山造山带的岩性相当。认为察尔其铜矿床属于与新近纪湖相沉积作用有关的砂岩型铜矿,并将铜矿形成过程分为2个成矿期3个成矿阶段,建立了矿床成矿模式。     

Carbonate slope re-sedimentation in a tectonically-active setting (Western Sicily Cretaceous Escarpment,Italy)

Tectonic processes are widely considered as a mechanism causing carbonate platform margin instabilities leading to the emplacement of mass transport deposits and calciturbidites. However, only few examples establishing a clear link between tectonics and re-sedimentation processes are known from the literature. The two-dimensional and three-dimensional wire-cut walls of hundreds of quarries extracting ornamental limestones (for example, Perlato di Sicilia) from the Western Sicily Cretaceous Escarpment in Italy expose a series of mass transport deposits. The depositional architecture, spatial facies distribution and sedimentary features of these deposits were studied in detail. Thin section analysis was used to define the microfacies characteristics and to determine the age of the re-sedimented limestones. Eleven facies types grouped into four facies associations were recognized that defined specific depositional processes and environments. The stratigraphic architecture of the slope was reconstructed using four composite facies successions based on the detailed analysis and correlation of the field sections. The palaeoslope orientation was reconstructed based on the analysis of synsedimentary faults, slump scars and pinch-out geometries. The Western Sicily Cretaceous Escarpment was strongly influenced by synsedimentary transtensional tectonics in combination with magmatic processes, as suggested by the presence of tuffites and pillow lava intercalations within the re-sedimented carbonate series. These volcanics point to a major role of crustal shear as a trigger for mass transport deposit emplacement. The facies distribution along the Western Sicily Cretaceous Escarpment delivers new insights into the deformation processes accompanying the crustal extension of the Cretaceous western Tethys realm.     

The Cascade rock avalanche: implications of a very large Alpine Fault-triggered failure,New Zealand

Catastrophic deep-seated rock slope failures (RSFs; e.g., rock avalanches) can be particularly useful proxies for fault rupture and strong ground motion, and currently represent an underappreciated hazard of earthquakes in New Zealand. This study presents observations of the previously undescribed Cascade rock avalanche (CRA), a c. 0.75 km³ single-event, long-runout, catastrophic failure interpreted to have been coseismically triggered by a large to great earthquake c. 660 AD on the Alpine Fault. Despite its size and remarkable preservation, the CRA deposit has been previously identified as a terminal moraine and fault-damaged outcrop, highlighting the common misinterpretation of similar rock avalanche deposits. Comparisons are drawn between the CRA and other Alpine Fault-attributed rock avalanches, such as the better-studied c. 860 AD Round Top rock avalanche, to re-assess coseismic rock avalanche hazard. Structural relationships indicate the rock mass comprising the CRA may have formerly been a portion of a larger (c. 3 km³) RSF, before its catastrophic collapse on a deep-seated gravitational collapse structure (sackung). Sackungen and RSFs are common throughout the Southern Alps and other mountainous regions worldwide; in many cases, they should be considered potential precursors to catastrophic failure events. Two masses of rock in the Cascade River Valley show precursory signs of potential catastrophic failures of up to c. 2 km³; a similar mass may threaten the town of Franz Josef.