冬季亚洲大陆冷高压形成和发展的物理机制研究

本文根据一个两层全球大气环流的谱模式，对大陆冷高压的形成和发展过程的一些物理机制进行了分析探讨，并作了有无地形的对比试验。分析结果指出，对流层大气的辐射冷却和地面感热造成了对流层低层的大陆冷源，以及地形性动力下沉运动控制了高压中心的位置。分析还指出，大陆冷高压形成后，受平流作用向南侵袭，冷高压的移动路径和南侵所达到的纬度与地形作用有关；冬季海面的感热输送使大陆高压入海变性。     

Pic 2005, a field campaign to investigate low-tropospheric ozone variability in the Pyrenees

The Pic 2005 field campaign took place from 13 June to 7 July 2005 close to the high-altitude permanent atmospheric observatory Pic-du-Midi (PDM), situated at 2875 m asl in the French Pyrenees. The experimental set-up combined in situ ground-based observations at PDM with ozone lidar measurements at two lower sites in close vicinity (600 m asl/28 km away, and 2380 m asl/500 m away). Such an experimental configuration is appropriate to address the question of the vertical layering of the chemical atmosphere in a mountain area and above the plain nearby, and how this influences measurements conducted on a mountain summit under the influence of horizontal transport at regional scale, and vertical transport at local scale. Forecast tools made it possible to plan and carry out 6 one-day Intensive Observation Periods (IOPs), mostly in anticyclonic conditions favoring local thermally induced circulations, with and without local pollution in the lower troposphere.It was thus possible to document i) ozone diurnal variations at PDM; ii) correlation between ozone measurements at PDM and their counterparts at the same altitude in the free troposphere; iii) ozone variability in the vicinity of PDM.The field campaign provided direct experimental evidence that at daytime in the encountered conditions (mostly anticyclonic), PDM failed in a large extent to be representative of the troposphere above the surrounding flat areas at similar altitude. First, ozone daily averages at PDM were found lower than their free-tropospheric counterpart. Thermally induced circulations and convection pumping clean air from the rural boundary layer can account qualitatively for ozone depletion observed at PDM during daytime. However the surface measurements do not support the hypothesis of direct lifting of near-surface air masses up to PDM. Thus, mixing with free-tropospheric air, photochemistry and surface deposition in the valleys appear to be needed ingredients to account quantitatively for the observed variations (in proportions that further studies should determine). Second, ozone variability was found to be much lower at PDM than in the free troposphere—again an indication of atmospheric mixing. In particular at daytime, the PDM observatory did not allow for detection of ozone-rich layers simultaneously visible above the plain. Beyond these first results, the data set presented here paves way to detailed studies of the IOPs.     

Estimation of Aerosol Radiation Effects under Background and Smoke-haze Atmospheric Conditions over Siberia from Empirical Data

The results of numerical simulation of downward solar radiation fluxes for background and smoke-contaminated atmospheric conditions are discussed. Vertical profiles of aerosol characteristics are obtained from the empirical model based on the data of aircraft sounding of profiles of angular scattering coefficients and content of absorbing particles in the lower troposphere. The background model was created using the results of measurements obtained under cloudless and mostly cloudless atmospheric conditions in 1999–2011. Optical parameters of smoke aerosol are determined from the data of aircraft measurements in the period of long-term wildfires in Siberia in the summer 2012. It is demonstrated that deficiency in diurnal values of total solar radiation at the surface level caused by the formation of the optically dense smoke layer as compared to background conditions, is more than 13 MJ/m².     

Relevance of ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water in the lower troposphere over the boreal forest at northern latitudes

The relevance of ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water (IINSW) in the troposphere over the boreal forest at northern latitudes is investigated by combining two existing and previously published models (MALTE — model to predict new aerosol formation in the lower troposphere; PARNUC — a parameterized steady-state model of neutral and ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water for atmospheric conditions). Simulations were performed for 4 days with observed new particle formation at ground level by using input data from the SMEAR II station in Hyytiälä, Finland. The selected days were chosen to cover a wide range of values of the parameters most relevant for IINSW. The results showed that ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water can contribute up to 15% to the total amount of newly formed particles in the size range of 3–10 nm inside the mixed layer at the Hyytiälä site. The importance of IINSW seemed to increase in the free troposphere above the boundary layer, however, lack of measurements in the vertical structure of the input parameters suggest that the model results are burdened with high uncertainties.     

Boundary-layer ozone depletion as seen in the Norwegian Arctic in spring

Several years of measurements of ozone, hydrocarbons, sulphate and meteorological parameters from Spitsbergen in the Norwegian Arctic are presented. Most of the measurements were taken on the Zeppelin Mountain at an altitude of 474 m a.s.l. The focus is the episodes of ozone depletion in the lower troposphere in spring, which are studied in a climatological way. Episodes of very low ozone concentrations are a common feature on the Zeppelin Mountain in spring. The low ozone episodes were observed from late March to the beginning of June. When the effect of transport direction was subtracted, the frequenty of the low ozone episodes was found to peak in the beginning of May, possibly reflecting the seasonal cycle in the actual depletion process. Analyses based on trajectory calculations show that most of the episodes occurred when the air masses were transported from W-N. Ozone soundings show that the ozone depletion may extend from the surface and up to 3–4 km altitude. The episodes were associated with a cold boundary layer beneath a thermally stable layer, suppressing mixing with the free troposphere. The concentration of several individual hydrocarbons was much lower during episodes of low ozone than for the average conditions. The change in concentration ratio between the hydrocarbons was in qualitative agreement with oxidation of hydrocarbons by Br and Cl atoms rather than by OH radicals.     

Relevance of ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water in the lower troposphere over the boreal forest at northern latitudes

The relevance of ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water (IINSW) in the troposphere over the boreal forest at northern latitudes is investigated by combining two existing and previously published models (MALTE — model to predict new aerosol formation in the lower troposphere; PARNUC — a parameterized steady-state model of neutral and ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water for atmospheric conditions). Simulations were performed for 4 days with observed new particle formation at ground level by using input data from the SMEAR II station in Hyytiälä, Finland. The selected days were chosen to cover a wide range of values of the parameters most relevant for IINSW. The results showed that ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and water can contribute up to 15% to the total amount of newly formed particles in the size range of 3–10 nm inside the mixed layer at the Hyytiälä site. The importance of IINSW seemed to increase in the free troposphere above the boundary layer, however, lack of measurements in the vertical structure of the input parameters suggest that the model results are burdened with high uncertainties.     

Quantifying contributions to polar warming amplification in an idealized coupled general circulation model

An idealized coupled general circulation model is used to demonstrate that the surface warming due to the doubling of CO₂ can still be stronger in high latitudes than in low latitudes even without the negative evaporation feedback in low latitudes and positive ice-albedo feedback in high latitudes, as well as without the poleward latent heat transport. The new climate feedback analysis method formulated in Lu and Cai (Clim Dyn 32:873–885, 2009) is used to isolate contributions from both radiative and non-radiative feedback processes to the total temperature change obtained with the coupled GCM. These partial temperature changes are additive and their sum is convergent to the total temperature change. The radiative energy flux perturbations due to the doubling of CO₂ and water vapor feedback lead to a stronger warming in low latitudes than in high latitudes at the surface and throughout the entire troposphere. In the vertical, the temperature changes due to the doubling of CO₂ and water vapor feedback are maximum near the surface and decrease with height at all latitudes. The simultaneous warming reduction in low latitudes and amplification in high latitudes by the enhanced poleward dry static energy transport reverses the poleward decreasing warming pattern at the surface and in the lower troposphere, but it is not able to do so in the upper troposphere. The enhanced vertical moist convection in the tropics acts to amplify the warming in the upper troposphere at an expense of reducing the warming in the lower troposphere and surface warming in the tropics. As a result, the final warming pattern shows the co-existence of a reduction of the meridional temperature gradient at the surface and in the lower troposphere with an increase of the meridional temperature gradient in the upper troposphere. In the tropics, the total warming in the upper troposphere is stronger than the surface warming.     

黄土高原气溶胶垂直结构的微脉冲激光雷达观测

Knowledge of the vertical distribution of aerosols in the free troposphere is important for estimating their impact on climate. In this study, direct observations of the vertical distribution of aerosols in the free troposphere are made using surface Micro-Pulse Lidar (MPL) measurements. The MPL measurements were made at the Loess Plateau (35.95°N, 104.1°E), which is near the major dust source regions of the Taklimakan and Gobi deserts. The vertical distribution of the MPL backscattering suggested that non-dust aerosols floated from ground level to an altitude of approximately 9 km around the source regions. Early morning hours are characterized by a shallow aerosol layer of a few hundred meters thick. As the day progresses, strong convective eddies transport the aerosols vertically to more than 1500 m. Citation: Huang, J. P., Z. W. Huang, J. R. Bi, et al., 2008: Micro-pulse lidar measurements of aerosol vertical structure over the Loess Plateau, Atmos. Oceanic Sci. Lett., 1, 8-11     

东亚太平洋地区近地面臭氧的季节和年际变化特征及其与东亚季风的关系

利用东亚清洁背景站近地面臭氧观测资料,结合风场和降水资料,分析东亚各地区臭氧的多年季节变化特征,并探讨东亚太平洋地区臭氧的季节和年际变化与季风的关系以及影响近地层臭氧的主要因子。结果表明：东亚大部分地区与北半球背景站观测一致,近地层臭氧季节变化表现为春季最高、夏季最低的特征;但在东亚中纬度33～43°N,臭氧表现为夏季最高,而在东亚20°N以南地区臭氧则表现为冬末、春初最高。东亚太平洋沿岸近地面臭氧的季节变化主要受东亚冬、夏季风环流的季节变化控制。该地区不同纬度上春季峰值出现时间的差异与亚洲大陆春季不同时期污染物输送路径的差异有关。对东亚太平洋沿岸对流层顶附近位势涡度、高空急流和垂直环流季节变化的分析表明,冬春季可能是平流层向对流层输送的最强期,对近地面臭氧贡献最大。初夏至秋季（5-11月）,平流层向对流层输送较弱,对近地面臭氧贡献较小。东亚太平洋地区夏季风爆发的时间和强度以及季风环流型的年际差异是导致该地区春、夏季臭氧年际变化的主要原因;而季风降水和云带位置以及平流层一对流层交换是造成臭氧年际变化的其他原因。     

The transport and redistribution of atmospheric gases in regions of frontal rain

Gases emitted in the planetary boundary layer can be transported very efficiently to the free troposphere through vertical motion along a frontal surface. A mesoscale numerical model was used to simulate the vertical transport of a tracer by clouds during frontogenesis in a moist atmosphere (an evolving Eady wave) in order to illustrate such vertical transport conditions. It is shown that the efficient vertical transport of a tracer occurs only when clouds are present, either when a surface or an in-situ source is considered. Insoluble, partially soluble, and soluble tracers are studied in order to determine the relative importance of vertical transport and scavenging on their redistribution.     

Radon-222 measurements during the Tropoz II campaign and comparison with a global atmospheric transport model

The aim of the ²²²Rn measurements during the airborne campaign TROPOZ II, was first to help in the interpretation of the photochemical studies, and secondly to furnish a data set of ²²²Rn in the troposphere, for validation of atmospheric transport models. In this paper we present the ²²²Rn measurements, and their simulation with a 3-D atmospheric transport model based on observed winds. The ²²²Rn was measured using the active daughters deposit technique with isokinetic aerosol sampling. We have obtained 44 measurements distributed between 65° North and 55° South, from 1 to 11 km height. In 25% of cases, we found relatively high concentrations (> 300 mBq·scm) of ²²²Rn in the high troposphere (>8 km). The results of 3D simulations and the calculations of back-trajectories allow us to find the origins of the high ²²²Rn concentrations. The transport model reproduced most of the observed synoptic variations, but it overestimates the concentrations which implies a vertical transport of excessive velocity.     

Downward transport and modification of tropospheric ozone through moist convection

This study estimated the largely unstudied downward transport and modification of tropospheric ozone associated with tropical moist convection using a coupled meteorology-chemistry model. High-resolution cloud resolving model simulations were conducted for deep moist convection events over West Africa during August 2006 to estimate vertical transport of ozone due to convection. Model simulations realistically reproduced the characteristics of deep convection as revealed by the estimated spatial distribution of temperature, moisture, cloud reflectivity, and vertical profiles of temperature and moisture. Also, results indicated that vertical transport reduced ozone by 50% (50 parts per billion by volume, ppbv) in the upper atmosphere (12–15 km) and enhanced ozone by 39% (10 ppbv) in the lower atmosphere (<2 km). Field observations confirmed model results and indicated that surface ozone levels abruptly increased by 10–30 ppbv in the area impacted by convection due to transport by downdrafts from the upper troposphere. Once in the lower troposphere, the lifetime of ozone decreased due to enhanced dry deposition and chemical sinks. Ozone removal via dry deposition increased by 100% compared to non-convective conditions. The redistribution of tropospheric ozone substantially changed hydroxyl radical formation in the continental tropical boundary layer. Therefore, an important conclusion of this study is that the redistribution of tropospheric ozone, due to deep convection in non-polluted tropical regions, can simultaneously reduce the atmospheric loading of ozone and substantially impact the oxidation capacity of the lower atmosphere via the enhanced formation of hydroxyl radicals.     

Carbon dioxide and methane in the Arctic atmosphere

Fifty flask air samples were taken during April 1986 from a NOAA WP-3D Orion aircraft which flew missions across a broad region of the Arctic as part of the second Arctic Gas and Aerosol Sampling Program (AGASP II). The samples were subsequently analyzed for both carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄). The samples were taken in well-defined layers of Arctic haze, in the background troposphere where no haze was detected, and from near the surface to the lower stratosphere. Vertical profiles were specifically measured in the vicinity of Barrow, Alaska to enable comparisons with routine surface measurements made at the NOAA/GMCC observatory. Elevated levels of both methane and carbon dioxide were found in haze layers. For samples taken in the background troposphere we found negative vertical gradients (lower concentrations aloft) for both gases. For the entire data set (including samples collected in the haze layers) we found a strong positive correlation between the methane and carbon dioxide concentrations, with a linear regression slope of 17.5 ppb CH₄/ppm CO₂, a standard error of 0.6, and a correlation coefficient (r²) of 0.95. This correlation between the two gases seen in the aircraft samples was corroborated by in situ surface measurements of these gases made at the Barrow observatory during March and April 1986. We also find a similar relationship between methane and carbon dioxide measured concurrenty for a short period in the moderately polluted urban atmosphere of Boulder, Colorado. We suggest that the strong correlation between methane and carbon dioxide concentrations reflects a common source region for both, with subsequent long-range transport of the polluted air to the Arctic.     

Boundary layer and aerosol evolution during the 3rd Lagrangian experiment of ACE‐2

Aircraft measurements are presented of the Lagrangian evolution of a marine boundary layer over a 30‐h period during the ACE‐2 field campaign. At the start of the observational period, a 500‐m deep polluted marine internal boundary layer (MIBL) was overlain by the remnants of a polluted continental boundary layer extending to around 2 km below a clean, dry free troposphere. The MIBL grew rapidly to a thickness of 900–1000 m in response to increasing sea surface temperatures. No significant aerosol spectral evolution was observed in the boundary layer. Low concentrations of SO₂ were observed in the MIBL suggesting that the air mass contained relatively aged aerosol. Aerosol spectra show a broad mode with a modal diameter of around 0.1μm. The polluted layer between the MIBL and the unpolluted free troposphere was only weakly and intermittently turbulent which prevented significant entrainment of clean air into the polluted layer from aloft. The polluted layer depth was thus controlled mainly by subsidence which as a result becomes shallower, decreasing from over 2000 m to around 1200 m during the observational period. The aerosol characteristics of the polluted layer were similar to those in the MIBL and so although the MIBL entrained considerable amounts of air from above the MIBL the aerosol characteristics underwent no significant change. This has important implications for the rate at which a polluted continental air mass is converted to a clean marine one. The dataset should prove useful in the validation of the modelling of continental pollution outbreaks.     

Results from One-Year Continuous Operation of a Large Aperture Scintillometer over a Heterogeneous Land Surface

A large-aperture scintillometer (LAS) was operated continuouslyduring a period of more than one year over a heterogeneous land surface in Central Europeat the transition between marine and continental climates. The LAS measurements of the refractiveindex structure parameter, C_N ², were used to estimate the sensible heat flux. Thiswas possible for about 60to 80% of the time under daytime conditions during thesummer, with lower values obtained for the cold season (October to March). Using datafrom a three-week long field experiment, the LAS-based heat flux was compared with a weighedaverage of local heat flux measurements over the main land use classes (forest, agriculture,water) in the area, resulting in reasonable agreement. LAS-based heat fluxes were then used forcomparison with the heat flux values of a numerical weather prediction model. An over-predictionof the model heat flux was found in summer but the modelled values were lower than the LASderived data during the cold season.     

Intercomparison of precipitation simulated by regional climate models over East Asia in 1997 and 1998

Regional climate simulations in Asia from May 1997 to August 1998 were performed using the Seoul National University regional climate model （SNURCM） and Iowa State University regional climate model （ALT.MM5/LSM）, which were developed by coupling the NCAR/Land Surface Model （LSM） and the Mesoscale Model （MM5）. However, for physical processes of precipitation, the SNURCM used the Grell scheme for the convective parameterization scheme （CPS） and the simple ice scheme for the explicit moisture scheme （EMS）, while the ALT.MM5/LSM used the Betts-Miller scheme for CPS and the mixed phase scheme for EMS.
The simulated precipitation patterns and amounts over East Asia for the extreme climatic summer in 1997 （relative drought conditions） and 1998 （relative flood conditions） were especially focused upon. The ALT.MM5/LSM simulated more precipitation than was observed in 1997 due to more moisture and cloud water in the lower levels, despite weak upward motion. In the SNURCM, strong upward motion resulted in more precipitation than that was observed in 1998, with more moisture and cloud water in the middle levels. In the ALT.MM5/LSM, weak upward motion, unchanged moisture in the lower troposphere, and the decrease in latent heat flux at the surface increased convective precipitation only by 3% for the 1998 summer event. In the SNURCM, strong upward motion, the increase in moisture in the lower troposphere, and the increase in latent heat flux at the surface increased convective precipitation by 48% for the summer of 1998. The main differences between both simulations were moisture availability and horizontal momentum transport in the lower troposphere, which were also strongly influenced by large-scale forcing.     

Ozone structure over the equatorial Andes from balloon-borne observations and zonal connection with two tropical sea level sites

In this paper we present first-time measurements of ozone profiles from a high altitude station in Quito, Ecuador (0.19°S, 78.4°W, and 2391 masl) taken from June 2014 to September 2015. We interpret ozone observations in the troposphere, tropopause, and stratosphere through a zonal comparison with data from stations in the Atlantic and Pacific (Natal and San Cristobal from the SHADOZ network). Tropospheric ozone concentrations above the Andes are lower than ozone over San Cristobal and Natal for similar time periods. Ozone variability and pollution layers are also reduced in the troposphere above the Andes. We explain these differences in terms of reduced contributions from the boundary layer and from horizontal transport. In the tropical tropopause layer, ozone is well-mixed up to near the cold point tropopause level. In this regard, our profiles do not show constraints to deep mixing above 14 km, as has been consistently observed at other tropical stations. Total column ozone and stratospheric column ozone are comparable among the three sites. However, the contribution of tropospheric column ozone to total column ozone is significantly lower above the Andes. Our comparisons provide a connection between observations from tropical stations in equatorial South America separated by the wide continental mass. Identified differences in ozone throughout the atmospheric column demonstrate the global benefit of having an ozone sounding station at the equatorial Andes in support of global monitoring networks.     

Remote and in situ measurements of aerosol concentration in the Arctic troposphere from the Yak-42D “Roshydromet” research aircraft

The results are presented of measurements of aerosol content at different heights in the Arctic troposphere in the area of Naryan-Mar city and the Yamal Peninsula on June 24, 2014 using in situ and remote instruments installed on the Yak-42D "Roshydromet" research aircraft. The maximum aerosol content was detected in the layer up to 3000 m, and the aerosol concentration in the troposphere over the Yamal Peninsula is higher than that in the area of Naryan-Mar by 100 times. The in situ aircraft instrument measured the number concentration of black carbon particles in the tropospheric aerosol. To identify the sources of aerosol in the Arctic troposphere during airborne measurements the air mass trajectory analysis was performed. Simulations were conducted using the TRACAO trajectory model and FLEXPART particle dispersion model. The possible contribution of long-range and local transport of industrial pollutants to the Arctic troposphere was analyzed. The air mass transport was simulated using the trajectory model. Model computations of aerosol concentration in the troposphere using the satellite data on the gas flaring incite that the high content of black carbon in the lower troposphere over the Yamal Peninsula was caused by its transfer from the oil-producing areas located on the adjoining territory of Russia. The contribution of long-range transport of pollutants from industrial enterprises in Western Europe to the Arctic area under study was insignificant in the period under consideration.     

What controls equatorial Atlantic winds in boreal spring?

The factors controlling equatorial Atlantic winds in boreal spring are examined using both observations and general circulation model (GCM) simulations from the coupled model intercomparison phase 5. The results show that the prevailing surface easterlies flow against the attendant pressure gradient and must therefore be maintained by other terms in the momentum budget. An important contribution comes from meridional advection of zonal momentum but the dominant contribution is the vertical transport of zonal momentum from the free troposphere to the surface. This implies that surface winds are strongly influenced by conditions in the free troposphere, chiefly pressure gradients and, to a lesser extent, meridional advection. Both factors are linked to the patterns of deep convection. Applying these findings to GCM errors indicates, that, consistent with the results of previous studies, the persistent westerly surface wind bias found in most GCMs is due mostly to precipitation errors, in particular excessive precipitation south of the equator over the ocean and deficient precipitation over equatorial South America. Free tropospheric influences also dominate the interannual variability of surface winds in boreal spring. GCM experiments with prescribed climatological sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) indicate that the free tropospheric influences are mostly associated with internal atmospheric variability. Since the surface wind anomalies in boreal spring are crucial to the development of warm SST events (Atlantic Niños), the results imply that interannual variability in the region may rely far less on coupled air–sea feedbacks than is the case in the tropical Pacific.     

A comparison of scavenging and deposition processes in global models: results from the WCRP Cambridge Workshop of 1995

We report on results from a World Climate Research Program workshop on representations of scavenging and deposition processes in global transport models of the atmosphere. 15 models were evaluated by comparing simulations of radon, lead, sulfur dioxide, and sulfate against each other, and against observations of these constituents. This paper provides a survey on the simulation differences between models. It identifies circumstances where models are consistent with observations or with each other, and where they differ from observations or with each other. The comparison shows that most models are able to simulate seasonal species concentrations near the surface over continental sites to within a factor of 2 over many regions of the globe. Models tend to agree more closely over source (continental) regions than for remote (polar and oceanic) regions. Model simulations differ most strongly in the upper troposphere for species undergoing wet scavenging processes. There are not a sufficient number of observations to characterize the climatology (long‐term average) of species undergoing wet scavenging in the upper troposphere. This highlights the need for either a different strategy for model evaluation (e.g., comparisons on an event by event basis) or many more observations of a few carefully chosen constituents.