超级单体引发的龙卷天气过程分析

利用营口市多普勒天气雷达资料,对2005年8月10日16时10-20分左右营口市东南部六个乡出现的龙卷天气过程进行了简要分析,该龙卷发生前的主要天气形势是:一个东移的东北低涡引导高空槽,沿高空等高线冷干气流与低空的暖湿气流产生对流不稳定层结,超低空南支急流与低空西南风急流以及高空西北风产生的较大垂直风切变,有利于龙卷天气的产生.产生该龙卷的对流系统是由渤海湾生成的片状层状云和积状云混合降水回波.自东向偏北方向移动,15:50以后低层反射率因子的强降水回波移入大连北部与营口南部临近区域,在层状云降水中含有一些零散的和有组织的对流降水回波,主体为一个近似团状的对流系统,而龙卷产生自该系统南端的一个超级单体.最初的中气旋形成于8月10日15:56,相应对流单体的反射率因子还没有呈现出超级单体的特征,随后中气旋迅速发展加强,在16:02-16:08反射率因子形态呈现出经典超级单体的特征:明显的低层入流缺口,入流缺口位于超级单体移动方向(偏东南方向)的右侧,低层的弱回波区和中高层的回波悬垂结构,最大反射率因子超过56 dRz.在龙卷产生前几分钟和龙卷进行过程中,中气旋保持较强,而后迅速减弱,低层入流缺口渐渐消失.在龙卷进行过程中,相应45 dBz超级单体的反射率因子区局限在6 km以下,此系统为低质心的对流系统,产生的天气是龙卷,伴随有大风短时强降水,与冰雹的高质心对流系统有明显区别.同时也初步探讨了引发此次龙卷的生成机制.     

一次伴随强烈龙卷的强降水超级单体风暴研究

利用徐州多普勒天气雷达、常规观测和地面加密观测资料,对2005年7月30日发生在安徽北部的伴随强烈龙卷和暴雨的强降水超级单体风暴的环境条件和回波结构演变特征进行了详细分析。主要结果如下:（1）该强降水超级单体产生在中等大小的对流有效位能和较大的深层垂直风切变条件下,同时抬升凝结高度很低,边界层内的低层垂直风切变很大,地面存在阵风锋。上述中等程度的对流有效位能值和大的深层垂直风切变有利于超级单体风暴的产生,而大的低层垂直风切变、低的抬升凝结高度和地面阵风锋的存在有利于F2级以上强龙卷的产生。（2）该超级单体的演化可以归结为“带状回波－典型强降水超级单体－弓形回波” 三个阶段。在带状回波阶段,该超级单体的发展从一条狭长对流雨带的变短变粗开始,雨带中间的对流单体内首先有中气旋发展,从4 km左右高度首先出现,然后同时向上和向下发展,前侧入流缺口变得明显,接着雨带南端的单体中也有中气旋发展。在典型强降水超级单体阶段, 雨带南端单体逐渐与中间单体合并,构成一个庞大深厚的强降水超级单体和被包裹在其中的直径12 km左右、深厚强烈的中气旋,然后由于后侧入流的开始出现,低层回波形态层演变为“S”形,而中层回波呈现为螺旋型。（3）龙卷出现在“S” 形回波阶段,在龙卷出现前,有一个龙卷涡旋特征TVS（Tornadic Vortex Signature）出现在中气旋的中心,其对应的垂直涡度值估计为6.0×10-2s-1。龙卷地点上空有很强的风暴顶辐散, 散度值约为0.8×10-2s-1。弓形回波阶段的开始由在弓形回波北部逗点头回波的中心的另一个中气旋形成为标志,原有的中气旋位于弓形回波顶点附近,随后弓形回波的北宽南窄的不对称结构逐渐明显,原有的位于弓形回波顶点附近的中气旋消失, 并出现地面直线型风害。另外,还对此次过程中气旋产生和超级单体形态的演变的可能机制进行了探讨。     

苏北地区超级单体风暴环境条件与雷达回波特征

利用江苏3个探空站、5部CINRAD/SA型多普勒天气雷达、地面常规与加密自动站等观测资料,分析2005—2009年苏北地区72个超级单体风暴发生的环境条件和多普勒天气雷达回波特征。探空和地面资料分析表明,苏北地区超级单体风暴可以产生在差别相当大的环境条件下:强降水超级单体通常产生在对流有效位能较高和垂直风切变中等的环境下,经典超级单体更多地产生在对流有效位能较高和垂直风切变较强环境下;产生大冰雹和(或)雷暴大风的超级单体,无论是经典还是强降水型超级单体,其环境特征均为0℃层、-20℃等温线高度较低,850—500 hPa温差较大,低层露点不高;产生龙卷特别是F2级以上强龙卷超级单体环境特征常常表现为低层(0—1 km)垂直风切变大、850—500 hPa温差相对较小、抬升凝结高度低、低层露点高,这类超级单体在产生龙卷的同时也常常伴有短时强降水甚至极端短时强降水。多普勒天气雷达资料分析表明,苏北地区超级单体具有持久的中气旋、回波墙和有界弱回波区或弱回波区结构,可以产生大冰雹、龙卷、短时强降水和下击暴流等强对流天气;超级单体的类型主要有经典超级单体、强降水超级单体以及强降水超级单体组成的复合风暴。经典超级单体一般为孤立风暴,中气旋多数情况下位于其右后侧(相对于风暴移动方向),低层有明显的钩状回波和入流缺口,入流缺口之上存在宽大的有界弱回波区,其上有强反射率因子组成的风暴核,最强的反射率因子可达75 dBz;强降水超级单体前侧有入流缺口和旁边粗胖的凸起部分与中气旋相伴,与经典超级单体的钩状回波在形态上区别明显,同样存在有界弱回波区或弱回波区,中气旋环流中有明显的降水回波;强降水超级单体组成的复合风暴内中气旋一般位于其前侧,主要结构与强降水超级单体相似,生命史较长。超级单体结构属性分析表明,绝大多数情况下,苏北地区超级单体风暴的最大反射率因子为55—76 dBz,基于单体的垂直累积液态水含量(VIL)为35—90 kg/m~2,垂直累积液态水含量超过60 kg/m~2时风暴有可能产生大冰雹,特别是在4—6月,冰雹直径随着垂直累积液态水含量的增大而增大,因此,垂直累积液态水含量季节性高值可以用来辨别产生大冰雹的超级单体;绝大多数情况下,中气旋旋转速度大于15 m/s,直径在3—10 km,持续时间超过40 min;中气旋的底越低,直径越小,产生龙卷的可能性越大。     

“7·21”北京特大暴雨过程龙卷形成可能性探究

针对2012年7月21日北京发生了自有正规气象记录以来最强的降水过程,位于北京东部平原的通州地区在暴雨发生前出现了严重风灾。从天气尺度背景、雷达回波特征的角度详细论述了此次风灾是由龙卷造成的可能性,并使用VDRAS反演资料分析了造成龙卷的超级单体动力结构特征。实况探测资料研究表明,该地区大尺度天气背景和大气温湿层结条件、三维环境风场切变条件都有利于龙卷的发生、发展。首先,雷达反射率因子回波在发展最强盛阶段由于近地层强偏东风入流上升,在中层形成的有界弱回波区和径向速度回波的强中气旋两个特点,表明造成风灾的对流系统是一个发展完善的超级单体。进而,由超级单体在热力边界层300 m高度处的辐合上升运动表明了龙卷的出现,径向速度回波上分析出的TVS进一步证明了这是一次龙卷过程。最后,利用VDRAS反演的风场给出了这个超级单体风暴在空间结构上的动力特征:单体移动方向右侧低层为偏东风入流层,初生阶段入流层偏东风层次较高,东风随高度减弱,与高空随高度增强的偏西风出流层形成了稳定的垂直风切变;发展最强盛阶段低层为强东风入流、高空为强西风出流,超级单体中心为强烈的上升运动,致使超级单体本身形成了一个完整的垂直环流,而单体的减弱则伴随着环境稳定垂直风切变的减弱和自身垂直环流的坍塌。     

基于多普勒天气雷达观测的湖南超级单体风暴特征

运用三部S波段多普勒天气雷达资料对湖南10次强对流事件中的22个超级单体进行详细分析,结果表明：湖南超级单体有的是孤立风暴发展而成,有的是多单体风暴发展而成,有的是中尺度对流系统内的风暴发展而成;超级单体中包含有低顶超级单体和微型超级单体;超级单体维持时间多数超过1 h,最短时间为24 min;超级单体风暴过程最大反射率因子强度均超过63 dBZ,54.5%的超级单体风暴最大反射率因子强度在70 dBZ以上;超级单体风暴中气旋最大旋转速度为24 m·s^-1,最大垂直涡度为5.3×10^-2s^-1;超级单体低层强度回波特征主要表现为钩状回波、入流缺口、风暴主体向着低层入流方向伸出的一个突出物,垂直结构特征表现为有界弱回波或弱回波区;超级单体产生的主要强对流天气有冰雹、大风、龙卷及暴雨,其中产生冰雹、大风的几率最大。对发展成为超级单体的风暴主要生成时间及源地、风暴的多发性和重复性以及环境风与超级单体不同阶段移向移速的关系的探讨,对超级单体的预报有极好的指示作用。     

强龙卷超级单体风暴特征分析与预警研究

利用多普勒雷达资料,对发生在安徽的3次强烈龙卷过程进行了分析.重点研究了导致F2～F3级强龙卷的3次超级单体风暴多普勒雷达回波特征及其与强冰雹超级单体风暴的差异.另外,利用安徽省、市、县气象报表、历年气候评价灾情资料(部分来自民政部门的灾情报告),对1960年至今的龙卷天气的时空分布及变化趋势、产生龙卷的环流形势特征进行了分析,结果表明:(1)龙卷主要出现在淮北东部和江淮之间东部地势平坦地区,7月份出现龙卷的概率最高.(2)超级单体龙卷产生在中等大小的对流有效位能和强垂直风切变条件下,同时抬升凝结高度较低.(3)3次F2～F3级龙卷在发生前、发生时在多普勒雷达上都探测到强中气旋和龙卷涡旋特征TVS.与非龙卷超级单体风暴相比,导致强龙卷的中气旋底高明显偏低,基本在1 km以下.同时风暴结构也有所不同,造成龙卷天气的超级单体风暴最大反射率因子与风暴质心高度接近,基本在3 km左右,反射率因子在50～60 dBz.造成强冰雹的超级单体风暴在冰雹产生前,风暴最大反射率因子高于风暴质心的高度;当风暴开始降雹时,最大反射率因子高度开始降低,而风暴质心的高度变化不大,高于最大反射率因子高度,基本保持在5km左右,反射率因子在60～70 dBz.     

1713号台风“天鸽”外围龙卷特征及成因分析

利用常规观测资料、多普勒天气雷达资料和区域加密自动站资料对1713号台风"天鸽"外围的龙卷过程进行分析,结果表明:(1)此次龙卷过程发生在台风外围螺旋云带前部,物理量分析表明广西东南部具有较大的不稳定度能量,抬升凝结高度较低,低层垂直风切变较大,具有利于龙卷发生的环境热力和动力条件。中尺度地面辐合线触发出新生对流单体,该对流单体在高温高湿和强不稳定状态环境中最终发展为龙卷。(2)此次龙卷为微超级单体风暴,具有低层有钩状回波、中高层回波悬垂和有界弱回波区(BWER)等典型超级单体特征,低层钩状回波的演变与龙卷的生消密切相关。(3)中气旋先于低层钩状回波出现,钩状回波形成于强中气旋附近。龙卷发生时中气旋底高在2㎞左右,TVS切变底部高度0.5㎞左右并且不断下降,与龙卷漏斗状云柱高度逐渐下降接地的趋势一致。     

台风“艾云尼”（2018）外围两次近距离龙卷的环境条件和雷达特征

2018年6月8日在距台风“艾云尼”中心80 km、160 km的广州市南沙区横沥镇、佛山市南海区大沥镇两地罕见地先后出现了龙卷天气。利用X波段双偏振雷达组网、广州S波段双偏振雷达、风廓线雷达和区域加密自动站等观测资料对两次近距离台风龙卷过程的环境条件和雷达特征进行了分析。环境条件分析表明,两次龙卷发生地位于低层西南急流和东南急流辐合区,所处环境为弱的对流有效位能（CAPE）、低的抬升凝结高度和强的低层垂直风切变环境中,0~1 km垂直风切变值超过15×10-3 s-1。中小尺度雷达特征分析表明:（1）两地龙卷由台风外围微型超级单体引起,超级单体在发展强盛阶段有钩状回波、入流缺口、中层回波悬垂等典型特征,最强反射率因子55~60 dBz,强度≥50 dBz强回波发展高度在4 km以下,微型超级单体有水平尺度2~3 km的中气旋,由于速度模糊影响,仅在南海龙卷发生前9 min广州S波段雷达能自动识别中气旋。（2）与南沙龙卷相联系的中气旋核心高度低,强度进一步加强紧缩导致龙卷发生;而与南海龙卷相联系的中气旋从中层发展,中气旋加强紧缩下降到更低导致龙卷发生。（3）两地弱龙卷发生时广州和南海双偏振雷达没能捕捉到龙卷碎片（TDS）特征,南海X波段雷达能提前30 min监测到入流急流,提前27 min探测出钩状回波等特征,并通过分析ZDR弧和KDP弧可判断低层强盛的上升气流和强的垂直风切变利于风暴的发展。（4）佛山四部X波段组网雷达反演的1 km水平风场可分析出小尺度涡旋结构,对应钩状回波尾端有强的风向切变,这对龙卷发生地点的判断和风暴的流场结构有较好指示意义。      

2013年3月20日广东东莞罕见龙卷冰雹特征及成因分析

利用常规观测、NCEP/NCAR再分析、多普勒天气雷达及自动气象站资料等,对2013年3月20日发生在东莞的一次罕见龙卷、冰雹等致灾性强对流天气过程进行分析。结果表明：1）龙卷过境时的单站气压、温度、风向风速与雷雨大风过境时明显不同,前者具有较典型的龙卷特征。2）华南地区高低空强的风随高度增大的垂直变化、上干下湿的位势不稳定层结以及低层高湿、增温为对流天气发展提供了有利的环境条件,冷空气南压和近地面边界层中小尺度辐合系统为其提供了触发机制。3）中等强度的对流有效位能（CAPE）、强的0-6 km深层垂直风切变以及较强的0-1 km低层垂直风切变为龙卷产生提供了可能性。4）龙卷、冰雹强对流风暴的发展加强与近地面边界层中小尺度辐合系统加强有密切关系。5）同时出现冰雹、大风、龙卷时,最强回波为72 dBz;龙卷出现在超级单体的钩状回波附近,更靠近后侧V形缺口;多时次观测到三体散射（TBSS）回波,与降雹对应;反射率垂直剖面图上可见明显的低层弱回波区、中高层回波悬垂,有界弱回波区（BWER）先于龙卷20多分钟出现。径向速度图上,龙卷出现时超级单体风暴同时具有龙卷涡旋特征（TVS）和中气旋特征。     

多个超级单体风暴诱发的EF3级强龙卷特征分析

2021年6月25日内蒙古锡林郭勒盟太仆寺旗发生了历史罕见的EF3级强龙卷,导致6人死亡,大量建筑物等严重损毁。利用常规高空和地面观测、区域自动气象观测站、FY4卫星云图、河北省张北CB型多普勒雷达等观测资料,以及NCEP(1°×1°)逐6 h再分析资料对这次强龙卷过程进行分析。结果表明:此次龙卷发生在前倾槽不稳定层结环境背景下,较强的对流层中低层条件不稳定(850 hPa与500 hPa温度垂直减温率约为7.7℃·km^-1)、低层丰富的水汽、中等强度的对流有效位能和强的0～6 km垂直风切变为超级单体风暴形成提供了有利环境背景。此外,0～1 km风矢量差为8 m·s^-1,抬升凝结高度为1.0 km,为超级单体龙卷的发生提供了相对有利的环境条件。与地面干线伴随的辐合线触发了产生龙卷的母风暴,随后演变为超级单体,其雷达反射率因子呈现典型的钩状回波、低层暖湿气流入流缺口、低层弱回波区和中高层回波悬垂,以及中等强度的中气旋等特征;龙卷的生成和消亡过程中有三个超级单体风暴相继形成,都呈现为孤立的对流风暴形态,龙卷发生在其中一个超级单体钩状回波的顶端,...     

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS DATA OF AIR–SEA TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND ITS VARIATION ACROSS SOUTH CHINA SEA IN THE PAST 35 YEARS

Using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) and ERA-Interim data, spatial distributions of air-sea temperature difference(ASTD) in the South China Sea(SCS) for the past 35 years are compared,and variations of spatial and temporal distributions of ASTD in this region are addressed using empirical orthogonal function decomposition and wavelet analysis methods. The results indicate that both ICOADS and ERA-Interim data can reflect actual distribution characteristics of ASTD in the SCS, but values of ASTD from the ERA-Interim data are smaller than those of the ICOADS data in the same region. In addition, the ASTD characteristics from the ERA-Interim data are not obvious inshore. A seesaw-type, north-south distribution of ASTD is dominant in the SCS; i.e., a positive peak in the south is associated with a negative peak in the north in November, and a negative peak in the south is accompanied by a positive peak in the north during April and May. Interannual ASTD variations in summer or autumn are decreasing. There is a seesaw-type distribution of ASTD between Beibu Bay and most of the SCS in summer, and the center of large values is in the Nansha Islands area in autumn. The ASTD in the SCS has a strong quasi-3a oscillation period in all seasons, and a quasi-11 a period in winter and spring. The ASTD is positively correlated with the Nio3.4 index in summer and autumn but negatively correlated in spring and winter.     

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS OF CLIMATIC EXTREMES IN CHINA DURING 1959–2014

The spatial and temporal variations of daily maximum temperature(Tmax), daily minimum temperature(Tmin), daily maximum precipitation(Pmax) and daily maximum wind speed(WSmax) were examined in China using Mann-Kendall test and linear regression method. The results indicated that for China as a whole, Tmax, Tmin and Pmax had significant increasing trends at rates of 0.15℃ per decade, 0.45℃ per decade and 0.58 mm per decade,respectively, while WSmax had decreased significantly at 1.18 m·s~(-1) per decade during 1959—2014. In all regions of China, Tmin increased and WSmax decreased significantly. Spatially, Tmax increased significantly at most of the stations in South China(SC), northwestern North China(NC), northeastern Northeast China(NEC), eastern Northwest China(NWC) and eastern Southwest China(SWC), and the increasing trends were significant in NC, SC, NWC and SWC on the regional average. Tmin increased significantly at most of the stations in China, with notable increase in NEC, northern and southeastern NC and northwestern and eastern NWC. Pmax showed no significant trend at most of the stations in China, and on the regional average it decreased significantly in NC but increased in SC, NWC and the mid-lower Yangtze River valley(YR). WSmax decreased significantly at the vast majority of stations in China, with remarkable decrease in northern NC, northern and central YR, central and southern SC and in parts of central NEC and western NWC. With global climate change and rapidly economic development, China has become more vulnerable to climatic extremes and meteorological disasters, so more strategies of mitigation and/or adaptation of climatic extremes,such as environmentally-friendly and low-cost energy production systems and the enhancement of engineering defense measures are necessary for government and social publics.     

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC LOW-FREQUENCY OSCILLATION ON THE IMMIGRATION OF NILAPARVATA LUGENS(STL) IN HUNAN AND JIANGXI PROVINCES

Various features of the atmospheric environment affect the number of migratory insects, besides their initial population. However, little is known about the impact of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation(10 to 90 days) on insect migration. A case study was conducted to ascertain the influence of low-frequency atmospheric oscillation on the immigration of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens(Stl), in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. The results showed the following:(1) The number of immigrating N. lugens from April to June of 2007 through 2016 mainly exhibited a periodic oscillation of 10 to 20 days.(2) The 10-20 d low-frequency number of immigrating N. lugens was significantly correlated with a low-frequency wind field and a geopotential height field at 850 h Pa.(3) During the peak phase of immigration, southwest or south winds served as a driving force and carried N. lugens populations northward, and when in the back of the trough and the front of the ridge, the downward airflow created a favorable condition for N. lugens to land in the study area. In conclusion, the northward migration of N. lugens was influenced by a low-frequency atmospheric circulation based on the analysis of dynamics. This study was the first research connecting atmospheric low-frequency oscillation to insect migration.     

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

Could the Recent Taal Volcano Eruption Trigger an El Ni?o and Lead to Eurasian Warming?

正The Taal Volcano in Luzon is one of the most active and dangerous volcanoes of the Philippines. A recent eruption occurred on 12 January 2020(Fig. 1a), and this volcano is still active with the occurrence of volcanic earthquakes. The eruption has become a deep concern worldwide, not only for its damage on local society, but also for potential hazardous consequences on the Earth's climate and environment.     

VARIABILITY OF INTER-ANNUAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE AND HUAXI REGION’S AUTUMN PRECIPITATION

The moving-window correlation analysis was applied to investigate the relationship between autumn Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events and the synchronous autumn precipitation in Huaxi region, based on the daily precipitation, sea surface temperature (SST) and atmospheric circulation data from 1960 to 2012. The correlation curves of IOD and the early modulation of Huaxi region’s autumn precipitation indicated a mutational site appeared in the 1970s. During 1960 to 1979, when the IOD was in positive phase in autumn, the circulations changed from a “W” shape to an ”M” shape at 500 hPa in Asia middle-high latitude region. Cold flux got into the Sichuan province with Northwest flow, the positive anomaly of the water vapor flux transported from Western Pacific to Huaxi region strengthened, caused precipitation increase in east Huaxi region. During 1980 to 1999, when the IOD in autumn was positive phase, the atmospheric circulation presented a “W” shape at 500 hPa, the positive anomaly of the water vapor flux transported from Bay of Bengal to Huaxi region strengthened, caused precipitation ascend in west Huaxi region. In summary, the Indian Ocean changed from cold phase to warm phase since the 1970s, caused the instability of the inter-annual relationship between the IOD and the autumn rainfall in Huaxi region.     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

LOW-FREQUENCY CIRCULATION AND EXTENDED-RANGE FORECAST IN CONNECTION WITH AUTUMN EXTREME HEAVY RAINFALL PROCESS IN HAINAN

Observed daily precipitation data from the National Meteorological Observatory in Hainan province and daily data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-2 dataset from 1981 to 2014 are used to analyze the relationship between Hainan extreme heavy rainfall processes in autumn (referred to as EHRPs) and 10–30 d low-frequency circulation. Based on the key low-frequency signals and the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2 (CFSv2) model forecasting products, a dynamical-statistical method is established for the extended-range forecast of EHRPs. The results suggest that EHRPs have a close relationship with the 10–30 d low-frequency oscillation of 850 hPa zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north, and that they basically occur during the trough phase of the low-frequency oscillation of zonal wind. The latitudinal propagation of the low-frequency wave train in the middle-high latitudes and the meridional propagation of the low-frequency wave train along the coast of East Asia contribute to the ‘north high (cold), south low (warm)’ pattern near Hainan Island, which results in the zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north reaching its trough, consequently leading to EHRPs. Considering the link between low-frequency circulation and EHRPs, a low-frequency wave train index (LWTI) is defined and adopted to forecast EHRPs by using NCEP CFSv2 forecasting products. EHRPs are predicted to occur during peak phases of LWTI with value larger than 1 for three or more consecutive forecast days. Hindcast experiments for EHRPs in 2015–2016 indicate that EHRPs can be predicted 8–24 d in advance, with an average period of validity of 16.7 d.     

AN ATTRIBUTION ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN THE BEIJING–TIANJIN–HEBEI REGION UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Based on the measurements obtained at 64 national meteorological stations in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region between 1970 and 2013, the potential evapotranspiration (ET0) in this region was estimated using the Penman–Monteith equation and its sensitivity to maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), wind speed (Vw), net radiation (Rn) and water vapor pressure (Pwv) was analyzed, respectively. The results are shown as follows. (1) The climatic elements in the BTH region underwent significant changes in the study period. Vw and Rn decreased significantly, whereas Tmin, Tmax and Pwv increased considerably. (2) In the BTH region, ET0 also exhibited a significant decreasing trend, and the sensitivity of ET0 to the climatic elements exhibited seasonal characteristics. Of all the climatic elements, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv in the fall and winter and Rn in the spring and summer. On the annual scale, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv, followed by Rn, Vw, Tmax and Tmin. In addition, the sensitivity coefficient of ET0 with respect to Pwv had a negative value for all the areas, indicating that increases in Pwv can prevent ET0 from increasing. (3) The sensitivity of ET0 to Tmin and Tmax was significantly lower than its sensitivity to other climatic elements. However, increases in temperature can lead to changes in Pwv and Rn. The temperature should be considered the key intrinsic climatic element that has caused the "evaporation paradox" phenomenon in the BTH region.     

Revisiting the Concentration Observations and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Ammonia

正While China’s Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan on particulate matter since 2013 has reduced sulfate significantly, aerosol ammonium nitrate remains high in East China. As the high nitrate abundances are strongly linked with ammonia, reducing ammonia emissions is becoming increasingly important to improve the air quality of China. Although satellite data provide evidence of substantial increases in atmospheric ammonia concentrations over major agricultural regions, long-term surface observation of ammonia concentrations are sparse. In addition, there is still no consensus on