近53年江淮流域梅汛期极端降水变化特征

基于1961—2013年江淮流域梅汛期（6—7月）逐日降水资料,利用百分位法确定极端降水阈值,对江淮流域梅汛期极端降水的时空分布及突变特征进行分析,结果表明：95%分位极端降水阈值多在50 mm以上,大值中心主要位于湖北东部到安徽南部一带;平均极端降水强度与阈值大小的空间分布相似。极端降水量和极端降水日数整体呈现由安徽南部向四周递减的空间分布特征,极端降水量约占梅汛期降水总量的1/4~1/3。从季节内分布上看,极端强降水站次在梅汛期呈单峰型分布,各候间差异明显,其中6月第5候到7月第2候最多。极端降水量、极端降水日数以及极端降水量占梅汛期总降水量百分比均具有明显的年际变化,且上升趋势显著;江淮流域梅汛期极端降水量和极端降水站次的这种上升趋势均在1980年发生突变。     

1981～2010年北京地区极端降水变化特征

采用北京地区20个常规气象站1981~2010年逐日降水数据,对北京地区极端降水的空间分布特征进行了分析。得到以下主要结论:1981~2010年,北京地区极端降水百分位数(第90、95和99个百分位数)阈值表现出较一致的空间分布特征,以第95个百分位数阈值计算的极端降水日数与降水阈值和降水量的分布有较大差异,极端降水量对总降水量的贡献可达30%~37%,极端降水强度分布与极端降水阈值分布相似。近30年,北京地区多数站点的极端降水量、降水日数和降水强度呈下降趋势,极端降水量以上甸子、怀柔、平谷和观象台下降较为明显,可达到40 mm(10 a)–1以上,极端降水强度以顺义、海淀、观象台、大兴和上甸子等站下降较为显著,每10 a降水强度减小趋势可达4 mm d–1,极端降水日数变化分布与极端降水量变化分布类似,极端降水强度变化与降水量和降水日数变化的分布有明显不同。     

江西省近50年极端降水事件变化初探

利用江西省17个国家级台站1960—2008年逐日降水资料,对日降水量超过绝对阈值（25mm,50mm）和相对阈值（95%,99%）降水量的变化情况进行了分析。结果表明,近50a来,江西省极端降水的频率在大部分地区呈增长趋势,强度在鄱阳湖冲击平原附近减小,而在之外的大部分地区呈增长趋势。     

四川省近10年极端小时降水时空分布特征

利用2012~2020年四川省156个国家气象观测站小时降水资料,以四川盆地、川西高原和攀西地区为考察重点,统计分析了全省极端小时降水的时空分布特征。结果表明:（1）四川省各站极端小时降水阈值、发生频次、平均强度及贡献率差异明显,高值区主要集中在盆地和攀西南部;盆地多站极端小时降水阈值在50 mm/h以上,小时降水极大值超过80 mm/h。（2）四川省极端小时降水事件主要集中在7月和8月,其中50 mm以上的小时强降水事件占比超过1/3;盆地、川西高原和攀西地区极端小时降水发生频次分别在7月、6月和8月达到最高,而小时强降水事件分别在8月、7月和6月出现最多。（3）四川省极端小时降水频次日变化峰值出现在02时,具有单峰和夜发特征,其中盆地、川西高原和攀西地区主峰值分别出现在05时、21时和02时;四川省50 mm以上小时强降水事件夜发占比达63.5%,各区域出现高峰时段差异大。      

Teleconnection–extreme precipitation relationships over the Mediterranean region

The relationship between five teleconnection patterns (North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), Arctic Oscillation (AO), East Atlantic/Western Russian (EAWR) pattern, Scandinavian (SCAND) pattern, and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)) and the frequency of occurrence of days (per month) with extreme precipitation in the Euro-Mediterranean region is investigated with National Centers for Environmental Prediction–National Center for Atmospheric Research reanalysis data. To quantify the teleconnection–precipitation relationships over the Euro-Mediterranean region, linear correlations are calculated between the monthly teleconnection indices for the five patterns and time series at each grid point of the monthly frequency of days with extreme precipitation, focusing on daily precipitation amounts that exceed a particular threshold value (a 90 % threshold is used). To evaluate dynamical processes, the teleconnection indices are also correlated with the frequencies of days with extreme values of dynamic tropopause pressure and precipitable water. The former quantity is used as a proxy for potential vorticity intrusions and the latter to identify regions of enhanced moisture. The results of this analysis indicates positive, statistically significant correlations between the NAO, AO, and SCAND indices and the frequency of extreme precipitation in the western Mediterranean; positive (negative) correlations between the EAWR index and the extreme precipitation frequency in the eastern (western) Mediterranean; and a positive correlation between the Niño3.4 index and the extreme precipitation frequency over the Iberian Peninsula and the Middle East. For all of the teleconnection patterns other than ENSO, the dynamic tropopause pressure correlation patterns resemble those for the precipitation. In contrast, similar precipitation and precipitable water correlation patterns are observed only for ENSO. These findings suggest that the teleconnections affect the interannual variation of the frequency of days with extreme precipitation over a large part of the Euro-Mediterranean region through their impact on the spatial distribution of regions with enhanced potential vorticity and air moisture.     

自组织映射神经网络(SOM)降尺度方法对江淮流域逐日降水量的模拟评估

利用1961~2002年ERA-40逐日再分析资料和江淮流域56个台站逐日观测降水量资料,引入基于自组织映射神经网络(Self-Organizing Maps,简称SOM)的统计降尺度方法,对江淮流域夏季(6~8月)逐日降水量进行统计建模与验证,以考察SOM对中国东部季风降水和极端降水的统计降尺度模拟能力。结果表明,SOM通过建立主要天气型与局地降水的条件转换关系,能够再现与观测一致的日降水量概率分布特征,所有台站基于概率分布函数的Brier评分(Brier Score)均近似为0,显著性评分(Significance Score)全部在0.8以上;模拟的多年平均降水日数、中雨日数、夏季总降水量、日降水强度、极端降水阈值和极端降水贡献率区域平均的偏差都低于11%;并且能够在一定程度上模拟出江淮流域夏季降水的时间变率。进一步将SOM降尺度模型应用到BCCCSM1.1(m)模式当前气候情景下,评估其对耦合模式模拟结果的改善能力。发现降尺度显著改善了模式对极端降水模拟偏弱的缺陷,对不同降水指数的模拟较BCC-CSM1.1(m)模式显著提高,降尺度后所有台站6个降水指数的相对误差百分率基本在20%以内,偏差比降尺度前减小了40%~60%;降尺度后6个降水指数气候场的空间相关系数提高到0.9,相对标准差均接近1.0,并且均方根误差在0.5以下。表明SOM降尺度方法显著提高日降水概率分布,特别是概率分布曲线尾部特征的模拟能力,极大改善了模式对极端降水场的模拟能力,为提高未来预估能力提供了基础。     

An intercomparison of model-simulated in extreme rainfall and temperature events during the last half of the twentieth century. Part 1: mean values and variability

In this study we examine the performance of eight of the IPCC AR4 global coupled climate models used in the WCRP CMIP3 Multimodel Dataset, as well as their ensemble mean, in simulating annual indices of extreme temperature and precipitation climate events in South America. In this first part we focus on comparing observed and modeled mean values and interannual variability. Two extreme temperature indices based on minimum temperature (warm nights and frost days) and three indices of extreme precipitation (R95t, R10 and consecutive dry days), obtained both from meteorological stations during 1961–2000 and model outputs, were compared. The number of warm nights are better represented by models than the FD. The interannual variability pattern is also in good agreement with the observed values. For precipitation, the index that is best represented by the models is the R95t, which relates the extreme precipitation to local climate. The maximum of dryness observed over the central Argentinian Andes or the extensive dry season of the Amazon region could not be represented by any model.     

1971~2020年藏东南极端降水指数的时空变化特征

基于1971~2020年藏东南4个气象站逐日降水量资料,选取最大1日降水量（RX1day）、最大5日降水量（RX5day）、降水强度（SDII）、中雨日数（R10mm）、大雨日数（R20mm）、连续干燥日数（CDD）、连续湿润日数（CWD）、强降水量（R95pTOT）、极强降水量（R99pTOT）和年总降水量（PRCPTOT）共10个极端降水指数,采用线性趋势、Mann-Kendall非参数检验、R/S趋势分析、Morlet小波等方法,分析了藏东南极端降水指数的时空变化特征及其与大气环流指数、太阳黑子、海温指数之间的关系。结果表明:1971~2020年藏东南各极端降水指数变化幅度不大;RX1day、R20mm、CWD、R95pTOP、PRCPTOP呈下降趋势,尤其是近30 a（1991~2020年）PRCPTOP减幅显著,达?38.43 mm·10a?1;其他指数趋于增加,以CDD增幅最大（1.31 d·10a?1）。年代际变化尺度上,极端降水指数在20世纪90年代为正距平,21世纪前10年为负距平。极端降水指数的Hurst指数大多表现为较强或强持续性,未来将保持近50 a以来的变化趋势,仅CDD在2002年发生了气候突变。极端降水指数大多存在显著的3~4 a振荡周期。除CDD、CWD外,其他极端降水指数之间具有显著的正相关关系;而各极端降水指数均与年降水量、汛期降水量存在显著的相关性。多个极端降水指数与大气环流指数的相关性不显著,只有RX1day、RX5day、R95pTOT与亚洲极涡面积指数有显著的负相关,RX5day还与西太平洋副高强度指数有显著的正相关。绝大多数极端降水指数与太阳黑子的相关性不显著,仅有CWD与之有显著的正相关。RX5day、PRCPTOT和CDD与赤道太平洋次表层海温指数存在显著的相关关系。RX5day与印度洋暖池面积和强度指数存在显著的正相关,CWD与西太平洋暖池面积指数为显著的负相关。      

1975—2016年秦巴山区极端气温事件的空间差异性分析

利用秦巴山区88个气象站1975—2016年的逐日气温数据,结合16个极端气温指数分析了秦巴山区极端气温阈值的空间分布及极端气温事件变化趋势的海拔依赖性。结果表明：极端气温阈值存在明显的空间分布差异,表现为极端低温阈值与极端高温阈值由西北向东南均有增温趋势;总体来看,极端气温暖事件（SU25、TR20、TX90P、TN90P、WSDI）增加幅度大于冷事件（FD0、ID0、TX10P、TN10P、CSDI）减少幅度,且变化趋势较冷事件更显著;全区霜冻日数、夏日日数、冷夜日数、暖昼日数及高温极值（TXx、TXn）变化均比较显著;区域作物生长期西部增长趋势较东部显著,多数站点变化幅度在3~6 d/10a之间;海拔越高发生极端低温事件的气温越低,极端低温阈值变化趋势为-0.36℃/100m;海拔越低发生极端高温事件的气温越高,极端高温变化趋势达0.5℃/100m,且均通过99%的信度检验;区域极端气温极值指数的变化趋势与海拔呈显著正相关,具有明显的海拔依赖性,表现为海拔越高,极值指数增加趋势越明显。     

Extreme climate events in China: IPCC-AR4 model evaluation and projection

Observations from 550 surface stations in China during 1961–2000 are used to evaluate the skill of seven global coupled climate models in simulating extreme temperature and precipitation indices. It is found that the models have certain abilities to simulate both the spatial distributions of extreme climate indices and their trends in the observed period. The models’ abilities are higher overall for extreme temperature indices than for extreme precipitation indices. The well-simulated temperature indices are frost days (Fd), heat wave duration index (HWDI) and annual extreme temperature range (ETR). The well-simulated precipitation indices are the fraction of annual precipitation total due to events exceeding the 95th percentile (R95T) and simple daily intensity index (SDII). In a general manner, the multi-model ensemble has the best skill. For the projections of the extreme temperature indices, trends over the twenty-first century and changes at the end of the twenty-first century go into the same direction. Both frost days and annual extreme temperature range show decreasing trends, while growing season length, heat wave duration and warm nights show increasing trends. The increases are especially manifested in the Tibetan Plateau and in Southwest China. For extreme precipitation indices, the end of the twenty-first century is expected to have more frequent and more intense extreme precipitation. This is particularly visible in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, in the Southeast coastal region, in the west part of Northwest China, and in the Tibetan Plateau. In the meanwhile, accompanying the decrease in the maximum number of consecutive dry days in Northeast and Northwest, drought situation will reduce in these regions.     

基于日降水量的江西省极端降水变化研究

利用STARDEX研究计划提出的PQ90、PX5D、PINT、PFL90、PNL90等5项主要极端降水指数,对江西省83个气象台站1961—2005年逐日降水量资料进行计算,并据此分析了45 a来江西省逐日极端降水强度和发生频率的变化情况。分析结果表明,江西省大多数台站逐日极端降水指数的年变化均呈上升趋势,且部分通过了信度为0.05的显著性检验;从指数的年代际变化看,所有指数在20世纪60—80年代变化不是很明显,但在90年代变化明显增大。总的来说,江西省逐日极端降水强度、极端降水临界值、极端降水的发生频率均呈增大趋势。     

基于阈值方法原理的江淮地区降水特性研究

利用江淮地区20个代表站点雨量计连续30年(1980—2009年)的逐日降水资料,基于阈值方法原理对该地区降水特性进行了研究,主要讨论了月平均日降水量与阈值为0.1,1.0,5.0,10.0,24.0,48.0mm/d时降水日数占该月天数比例之间的关系。研究结果表明:各站点及江淮整体月平均日降水量与超过某一阈值降水日数占该月天数的比例之间存在着高度的线性相关关系,相关性随着阈值的不同而变化,在阈值为24.0mm/d时相关性最好,相关系数普遍超过0.97。低阈值时存在着非线性相关。阈值方法具有很多方面的应用,例如能更好地理解降水的形成机制;寻求更好的估测降水的算法;发展更优的数值预报模式的参数化方案;检验各种数值预报模式降水产品等。     

不同升温阈值下中国地区极端气候事件变化预估

本文基于耦合模式比较计划第五阶段(CMIP5)的18个全球气候模式的模拟结果,预估了全球平均气温在不同典型浓度路径(RCPs)下达到2℃、3℃和4℃阈值时,中国地区气温和降水的变化,并采用了具有稳定统计意义的27个极端气候指标定量评估了全球平均气温达到不同阈值时,中国地区极端气候事件的可能变化。结果表明,未来我国平均气温增幅将高于全球平均增暖,极端暖事件(如暖夜、暖昼、热带夜)明显增多,达到4℃阈值时,暖夜指数相比参考时段增加约49.9%。极端冷事件(如冷夜、冷昼、霜冻)减少。随全球气温升高,中国北方平均降水增多。在不同升温阈值下,中国地区降水的极端性都体现出增强的趋势,强降水事件发生频率(如中雨日数、大雨日数)和强度(如五日最大降水量、极端强降水量)都明显增加。随升温阈值的升高,这些变化幅度更大,在 RCP8.5 情景下全球升温 3℃和4℃时,中国平均五日最大降水分别增加 12.5mm和17.0mm。我国西南地区极端降水强度的增幅高于其他地区。     

云贵高原夏季不同等级极端日降水事件的气候特征

基于中国气象局国家气象信息中心整编的云贵高原地区81站的1960—2014年夏季（6—8月）日降水资料,利用百分位法得到不同等级的降水阈值来定义相应等级的日降水事件,并对1960—2014年（55 a）云贵高原夏季不同等级的极端日降水事件的气候特征进行分析。结果表明,云贵高原夏季不同等级日降水事件的降水阈值均呈南多北少的分布特征,高值区位于广西南部,最低值则位于云南西北。区域平均的99%、95%、90%和75%分位上的降水阈值分别为19.4 mm、15.5 mm、13.1 mm和9.6 mm。在上述4个等级中,75%分位日降水事件的累积降水量占夏季总降水量百分比最大,95%次之,99%分位占比最少。近55 a来,99%分位和95%分位的极端日降水事件的降水日数呈一定程度的增多趋势,90%分位和75%分位则以减少为主。4个等级的云贵高原区域平均极端日降水事件具有显著的年际和年代际变化特征。此外,云贵高原夏季累积降水量随大范围日降水量的变化曲线近似于左偏态分布,其中5.0~11.8 mm的日降水量带来的降水占全部累积降水的52.9%,对云贵高原夏季降水有重要贡献。      

Experimental Simulations of Extreme Precipitation Based on the Multi-Status Markov Chain Model

A multi-status Markov chain model is proposed to produce daily rainfall, and based on which extreme rainfall is simulated with the generalized Pareto distribution (GPD). The simulated daily rainfall shows high precision at most stations, especially in pluvial regions of East China. The analysis reveals that the multistatus Markov chain model excels the bi-status Markov chain model in simulating climatic features of extreme rainfall. Results from the selected six stations demonstrate excellent simulations in the following aspects:standard deviation of monthly precipitation,daily maximum precipitation,the monthly mean rainfall days,standard deviation of daily precipitation and mean daily precipitation, which are proved to be consistent with the observations. A comparative study involving 78 stations in East China also reveals good consistency in monthly mean rainfall days and mean daily maximum rainfall, except mean daily rainfall. Simulation results at the above 6 stations have shown satisfactory fitting capability of the extreme precipitation GPD method. Good analogy is also found between simulation and observation in threshold and return values. As the errors of the threshold decrease, so do the di?erences between the return and real values. All the above demonstrates the applicability of the Markov chain model to extreme rainfall simulations.     

1980~2019年夏季青藏高原中东部极端日降水分布特征

基于中国气象局国家基准气象观测站逐日观测资料,采用百分位法对1980~2019年夏季青藏高原中东部地区极端日降水进行定义,分析了不同分位极端日降水的气候分布特征。结果表明:（1）青藏高原中东部夏季降水呈东多西少、中间多南北少的反位相分布特征,且存在显著的年际和年代际变化。（2）99%分位降水阈值普遍在24 mm/d以上,95%分位和90%分位降水阈值维持在12~20 mm/d,75%分位降水阈值则进一步下降至7~9 mm/d。（3）从长期变化趋势看,青藏高原中东部99%分位的极端日降水出现频次呈显著的上升趋势,其余几个分位则以下降趋势为主。（4）相较于99%和90%分位而言,95%分位在青藏高原中东部夏季降水中具有更为突出的贡献,且近40 a来99%分位的贡献在不断增加。（5）青藏高原中东部日降水量介于0.1~10.5 mm,但日降水量的频次波峰和总降水量的波峰位置存在差异,2.4~5.1 mm日降水量在青藏高原中东部降水中具有重要作用。      

Changes in daily climate extremes in the arid area of northwestern China

There has been a paucity of information on trends in daily climate and climate extremes, especially for the arid region. We analyzed the changes in the indices of climate extremes, on the basis of daily maximum and minimum air temperature and precipitation at 59 meteorological stations in the arid region of northwest China over the period 1960–2003. Twelve indices of extreme temperature and six indices of extreme precipitation are examined. Temperature extremes show a warming trend with a large proportion of stations having statistically significant trends for all temperature indices. The regional occurrence of extreme cool days and nights has decreased by ?0.93 and ?2.36 days/decade, respectively. Over the same period, the occurrence of extreme warm days and nights has increased by 1.25 and 2.10 days/decade, respectively. The number of frost days and ice days shows a statistically significant decrease at the rate of ?3.24 and ?2.75 days/decade, respectively. The extreme temperature indices also show the increasing trend, with larger values for the index describing variations in the lowest minimum temperature. The trends of Min Tmin (Tmax) and Max Tmin (Tmax) are 0.85 (0.61) and 0.32 (0.17)?°C/decade. Most precipitation indices exhibit increasing trends across the region. On average, regional maximum 1-day precipitation, annual total wet-day precipitation, and number of heavy precipitation days and very wet days show insignificant increases. Insignificant decreasing trends are also found for consecutive dry days. The rank-sum statistic value of most temperature indices exhibits consistent or statistically significant trends across the region. The regional medians after 1986 of Min Tmin (Tmax), Max Tmin (Tmax), warm days (nights), and warm spell duration indicator show statistically more larger than medians before 1986, but the frost days, ice days, cool days (nights), and diurnal temperature range reversed. The medians of precipitation indices show insignificant change except for consecutive dry days before and after 1986.     

Assessment of climate extremes in the Eastern Mediterranean

Summary Several seasonal and annual climate extreme indices have been calculated and their trends (over 1958 to 2000) analysed to identify possible changes in temperature- and precipitation-related climate extremes over the eastern Mediterranean region. The most significant temperature trends were revealed for summer, where both minimum and maximum temperature extremes show statistically significant warming trends. Increasing trends were also identified for an index of heatwave duration. Negative trends were found for the frequency of cold nights in winter and especially in summer. Precipitation indices highlighted more regional contrasts. The western part of the study region, which comprises the central Mediterranean and is represented by Italian stations, shows significant positive trends towards intense rainfall events and greater amounts of precipitation. In contrast, the eastern half showed negative trends in all precipitation indices indicating drier conditions in recent times. Significant positive trends were revealed for the index of maximum number of consecutive dry days, especially for stations in southern regions, particularly on the islands.Current affiliation: National Observatory of Athens, Athens, Greece.     

中国区域性极端降水事件及人口经济暴露度研究

基于中国1960-2014年771个气象站的逐日降水资料,选取有效降水序列95百分位数作为极端降水阈值,将既定持续时间尺度和连续面积上超过阈值的降水事件定义为区域性极端降水事件。采用强度-面积-持续时间（Intensity-Area-Duration,IAD）法,根据极端降水事件空间和时间上的连续性特征,对不同持续时间的区域性极端降水事件演变趋势及暴露于极端降水事件下的人口和国内生产总值进行研究。结果表明:（1）相对强度最大的区域性极端降水事件主要集中在1960-1968、1991-1999和2006-2013年3个时段;（2）区域性极端降水事件最强中心主要分布在长江以南和东北地区,发生在北方的多为单日极端降水,南方多为持续多日的极端降水;（3）1960-2014年区域性极端降水事件影响面积有所增大,相对强度变化不明显;（4）暴露于极端降水事件影响区域内的人口和国内生产总值均呈显著增大趋势,暴露人口最多的年份在1983年,达到2408万人/d,暴露国内生产总值最多的年份在1998年,达到20亿元/d。      

Variability of extreme summer precipitation over Circum-Bohai-Sea region during 1961�C2008

The variability of extreme summer precipitation over Circum-Bohai-Sea region during 1961?C2008 was investigated based on the daily precipitation data of 63 meteorological stations using the linear regression method, the non-parametric Mann?CKendall test, and the continuous wavelet transform method. The results showed that there were large spatial differences in the trends of extreme summer precipitation indices. Decreasing trends were found in summer total precipitation, extreme precipitation frequency, intensity and proportion, the maximum consecutive wet days (CWD), and the maximum 1- and 5-day precipitation, and the largest decrease was observed in the central coast area (except CWD), although the trends were not statistically significant at the 5% level at most places. Inversely, the maximum consecutive dry days exhibited non-significant increasing trends. Additionally, the significant 2?C4-year periods were detected for eight indices, showing the significant interannual variability of extreme summer precipitation. Overall, the results of this study indicated that in the last 48?years, there was severe water stress over Circum-Bohai-Sea region, especially in the central coast area, which exerted negative effects on economic development and natural ecosystems.