多年冻土区土壤蒸散发对气候变化的敏感性分析

由于不同区域蒸散发对气候变化的敏感性各不相同,为摸清多年冻土活动层陆面过程中冻土-气候变化-水文循环之间的相互关系,选择青藏高原风火山区域的典型多年冻土区,依据气象站观测资料,应用Penman-Monteith公式计算了典型多年冻土区土壤蒸散发和蒸散发气候敏感系数,分析了多年冻土区土壤蒸散发对气候变化的敏感性。结果表明:多年冻土区土壤蒸散量对相对湿度的敏感性最高(-1. 291),其次为风速(0. 658),对空气温度的敏感性最低(0. 248);土壤完全融化的植被生长期,蒸散发对各气象因子的敏感性最高,土壤完全冻结的植被枯萎期,蒸散发对各气象因子的敏感性都最低;年内尺度,蒸散发对气温、相对湿度和风速的敏感性均在8月最高,在1月或12月最低;蒸散发对气温和相对湿度的敏感性变化与植物生长变化过程高度一致,而蒸散发对风速的敏感性则较为复杂,与土壤的冻融过程相关,分别在土壤逐渐融化的植物生长前期和土壤完全融化的植物生长期敏感性较高。     

GQZ—Z1型称重式蒸渗计的研制及标定

在土壤水分蒸散量测量仪器研制中,首次在蒸渗计的原状土柱与反滤层接触部分安装了自动补（抽）水设备,使土桶内原状土柱与大田内的土壤水分保持一致。提出了传感器的参数选用原则和蒸渗计标定方法。经过安装和标定使用,GQZ—Z1蒸渗计的精度达到设计和观测0．1mm的要求,能够有效提高农田蒸散量的观测精度,其测定值能很好地反映植物在短时段内的蒸散变化。     

利用MERIS和AATSR资料估算黄土高原塬区蒸散发量研究

基于陆面能量平衡原理,通过对搭载在欧洲空间局环境卫星(Environmental Satellite,ENVI-SAT)上中分辨率影像光谱仪(Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer,MERIS)2005年6月7,11和27日的遥感观测资料进行大气纠正等预处理后,得到估算瞬时蒸散发量所需要的地表反照率和植被覆盖度等值,并利用分裂窗法和ENVISAT上搭载的先进的沿轨迹扫描辐射计(Advanced Along-TrackScanning Radiometer,AATSR)的观测资料进行了地表温度的反演,进一步估算出黄土高原塬区午间瞬时净辐射、感热通量和土壤热通量。结合与卫星遥感观测资料同期研究区域气象站的太阳辐射、气温、日照时数和风速等气象要素资料,充分考虑到植被冠层和陆地表面对蒸散发量的不同影响,发展了一个可以估算陆面潜热的简化模型,并将瞬时蒸散发量转化为日蒸散发量。对卫星遥感估算的潜热通量,利用黄土高原塬区陆面过程野外观测试验(Loess Plateau land surface process field Experiments,LOPEXs)的地面通量观测资料进行验证,结果表明:二者最大相对差异为10.9%,最小相对差异为4.8%,并对差异误差产生的原因进行了分析和探讨。     

怀来地区蒸渗仪测定玉米田蒸散发分析

利用2012年和2013年怀来遥感综合试验站蒸渗仪、涡动相关仪和自动气象站观测资料,分析了土壤蒸发和玉米农田蒸散的日、季节变化,用多元回归分析法研究了气象因子(净辐射、空气温度、空气湿度、风速)、土壤水分和农田蒸散量的关系,并将蒸渗仪蒸散观测值与涡动相关仪蒸散量观测值进行了比较。结果表明,土壤蒸发和玉米农田蒸散日变化曲线较一致,季节性差异明显;怀来地区日蒸散量与净辐射和土壤水分相关性较好,与其他影响因子相关性不明显;蒸渗仪的农田代表性受其观测范围内的作物长势影响显著,涡动相关仪观测的蒸散量与蒸渗仪观测值相关关系较好,蒸渗仪观测值较涡动相关仪观测值高10.5%,这是由于不能同周围农田进行热交换,蒸渗仪内平均土壤温度较农田高了9.5%,导致蒸渗仪对蒸散量的相对高估。     

非参数化蒸散发估算方法在黑河流域的适用性分析

陆面蒸散发是水循环过程中的重要组成部分,直接关系到地表的能量和水量平衡。基于哈密顿原理的非参数化蒸散发估算方法能够避免复杂的参数化过程,降低计算过程的不确定性。首先,利用非参数化方法估算了黑河流域不同下垫面的蒸散发,并利用地面观测数据进行了验证,分析了非参数化方法在不同下垫面和不同季节的适用性。对不同下垫面的验证结果表明,在湿润下垫面该方法会低估实际蒸散发,在干旱下垫面会高估实际蒸散发;对不同季节的验证结果表明,夏季蒸散发估算精度明显优于冬季。其次,进一步对非参数化方法进行了敏感性分析:在湿润下垫面,地表净辐射通量对估算结果影响较大;在干旱下垫面,地表净辐射通量和地表温度对非参数化估算方法结果影响较大。最后,利用非参数化方法结合遥感数据和大气驱动数据估算了黑河流域中上游的区域蒸散发,并利用地面观测数据结合足迹模型进行了验证,分析了非参数化方法估算区域蒸散发的适用性,估算结果能够反映该区域地表通量的分布特征,但是与地面观测数据相比存在一定的误差,不同下垫面的均方根误差在50~100W·m~(-2)之间。     

黄河源区蒸散发量时空变化趋势及突变分析

蒸散发量是流域水文过程的关键因子。由于缺乏区域面上实际蒸散发量的长期观测,很难得到长时间序列的蒸散发时空变化趋势。因此,本研究首先利用架设在黄河源若尔盖地区的涡动相关系统观测的2010年全年的蒸散发资料进行分析,对欧洲中心提供的ERA-interim和美国国家环境预报中心(NCEP)提供的地表变量再分析数据集进行了局地适用性评估,并依据再分析蒸散数据集,基于统计学方法分析了1979~2014年黄河源区蒸散发量的时空分布及变化特征。结果表明:(1)ERA-interim蒸散发再分析资料在黄河源区适用性较好,均方根误差为0.63,NCEP蒸散发再分析资料在4~7月、10~12月模拟值偏高,均方根误差为0.81。(2)进而利用ERA-interim蒸散发再分析资料,基于Mann Kendall方法及Sen斜率(Sen’s slope estimator)检验法,分析了黄河源区蒸散发量在1979~2014年期间的变化趋势。黄河源区蒸散发量总体上呈现北高南低的年变化趋势,北部兴海—共和—贵德地区增加最为迅速,年变化率在1.5~2.5 mm/a,西南部曲麻莱—治多—玉树地区减少最为明显,变化率为-1.0~-0.5 mm/a,东南部玛沁—玛曲—久治地区蒸散发量的变化在0.5~1.0 mm/a。(3)利用滑动t检验和SQMK(Sequential Mann Kendall)方法检测出发生突变的年份集中在20世纪80年代。     

大型称重式蒸渗仪测定的冬小麦农田的蒸散规律研究

利用大型称重式蒸渗仪实测数据,对冬小麦蒸散耗水规律进行研究。结果表明：1）冬小麦的目蒸散量变化曲线呈单峰型,中午大,早晚小。蒸散量在分蘖期出现小峰值,此后逐渐降低,返青后又不断增大,在孕穗期土壤水分亏缺严重,作物蒸散量增加速率有所下降。2）Penman—Monteith法估算的实际蒸散量比蒸渗仪实测值略高,怛两者的相关...     

珠江流域实际蒸散发与潜在蒸散发的关系研究

采用水量平衡模型和Penman公式分别计算了珠江流域七个子流域1961—2000年实际蒸散发(I_(ETa))和潜在蒸散发(I_(ETp)),并对供水条件变化下I_(ETa)与I_(ETp)的关系进行了定量化分析,对各子流域I_(ETa)和I_(ETp)关系的理论从属性进行判定,主要结论如下:1)珠江流域年实际蒸散发量远低于潜在蒸散发量,多数子流域I_(ETa)值不到I_(ETp)值的1/2。7个流域面积加权平均I_(ETa)为681.4 mm/a,I_(ETp)为1 560.8 mm/a。从蒸散发的变异性来看,则实际蒸散发I_(ETa)的变异性明显要高于潜在蒸散发I_(ETp)。2)东江、西江、北江、柳江和盘江等5个流域实际蒸散发I_(ETa)都与降水量呈现正相关关系,韩江、郁江两个流域I_(ETa)随降水变化的变化趋势不明显。各子流域的潜在蒸散发I_(ETp)与降水量呈现显著负相关关系。7个子流域平均情况下,随着降水量的增加,I_(ETa)呈现明显的增加趋势,而I_(ETp)呈现明显的下降趋势。3)通过对降水量P与实际蒸散发I_(ETa)及潜在蒸散发I_(ETp)的联合回归方程P-IET回归系数的T检验,判定韩江、柳江和盘江等三个子流域以及七流域面积加权平均I_(ETa)与P和I_(ETp)与P的关系满足理论意义上的严格互补相关;东江、西江、北江等三个流域I_(ETa)与P和I_(ETp)与P的关系满足"非对称"互补相关。4)基于极端干旱和极端湿润的边界条件,推导出非对称条件下的实际蒸散发互补相关理论模型。     

不同互补模型对青藏高原多年冻土区地表实际蒸散发的模拟能力评估

蒸散发是地气水热交换的重要环节,其变化对水资源管理和生态环境具有重要的影响。气候变暖背景下,青藏高原多年冻土不断退化,多年冻土区近地表水热条件发生改变,进而影响着该区域的蒸散发过程。本文利用位于青藏高原多年冻土区腹地的唐古拉综合观测场2010年1月1日至2011年12月31日的气象和涡动等实测资料,选择基于互补蒸散原理的四种半经验模型,评估了不同模型率定参数前后模拟日实际蒸散发的能力,分析了不同模型中参数的敏感性。结果表明,模拟的实际蒸散发量对模型中参数α的取值非常敏感,不合理的参数取值会对模拟精度产生重要影响。使用默认参数值会导致日蒸散发量模拟值明显偏高,其中,S2017模型模拟精度最高,均方根误差值为0.44 mm·d^-1;率定参数后各模型整体上均能较好地模拟出日实际蒸散发量及其变化特征,均方根误差值在0.3～0.4 mm·d^-1,各模型中模拟精度最高的为C2016模型,其次分别为H2018模型、B2015模型和S2017模型,相较而言,H2018模型在率定前后模拟结果更为稳定,显示出该模型对参数的依赖性最低;另外,年内不同时期的模拟精度...     

珠江流域实际蒸散发的时空变化及影响要素分析

采用基于互补相关理论的平流-干旱模型,根据60个气象站1961—2010年气象资料,计算并分析了珠江流域实际蒸散发（ETa）的时空变化特征,通过对实际蒸散发的辐射能量项、空气动力学项与主要气象要素的相关分析,对珠江流域实际蒸散发的时空变化进行了归因研究。结果表明:（1） 珠江流域多年平均实际蒸散发量为665.6 mm/a。1961—2010年,珠江流域实际蒸散发量呈明显的下降趋势,下降幅度为-24.3 mm/(10 a)。夏秋季节实际蒸散发的下降对年际尺度实际蒸散发的下降具有明显的贡献。（2） 珠江流域东南沿海地区年实际蒸散发量较高（大于690 mm）,该区年实际蒸散发量呈现显著的下降趋势。流域中部有一条呈东北-西南走向的条带状实际蒸散发低值区,年均实际蒸散发量在630 mm以下,但该区域的时间变化趋势不明显。（3） 气温日较差和日照时数的下降以及大气压的增加使得辐射能量项的下降,是造成实际蒸散发下降的主要原因;平均气温、最高、最低气温的上升使空气动力学项呈现增加趋势,从而在一定程度上贡献于实际蒸散发的下降。春秋冬三季平均风速的下降引起空气动力学项的下降趋势或减缓其增加趋势,反过来在一定程度上减缓了实际蒸散发的下降趋势。      

The Influence of Large-Scale Circulation on the SummerHydrological Cycle in the Haihe River Basin of China

In this study,we focus on changes in three important components of the hydrological-cycle in the Haihe River basin (HRB) during 1957-2005:precipitation (Prep),actual evaportranspiration (ETa),and pan evaporation (PE)- a measure of potential evaporation.The changes in these components have been evaluated in relation to changes in the East Asian summer monsoon.Summer Prep for the whole basin has decreased significantly during 1957-2005.Recent weakening of the convergence of the integrated water vapor flux,in combination with a change from cyclonic-like large-scale circulation conditions to anti-cyclonic-like conditions,led to the decrease in the summer Prep in the HRB.ETa is positively correlated with Prep on the interannual timescalc.On longer timescales,however,ETa is less dependent on Prep or the large-scale circulation.We found negative trends in ETa when the ERA40 reanalysis data were used,but positive trends in ETa when the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data were used.PE declined during the period 1957 2001.The declining of PE could be explained by a combination of declining solar radiation and declining surface wind.Howevcr,the declining solar radiation may itself be related to the weakening winds,due to weaker dispersion of pollution.If so,the downward trend of PE may be mainly caused by weakening winds.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF EFFECTS OF LAND SURFACE PROCESSES ON CLIMATE--IMPLEMENTING OF SSiB IN IAP/LASG AGCM AND ITS PERFORMANCE*

This is an investigation of exchanges of energy and water between the atmosphere and the vegetated continents,and the impact of and mechanisms for land surface-atmosphere interactions on hydrological cycle and general circulation by implementing the Simplified Simple Biosphere(SSiB) model in a modified version of IAP/LASG global spectral general model(L9R15 AGCM).This study reveals that the SSiB model produces a better partitioning of the land surface heat and moisture fluxes and its diurnal variations,and also gives the transport of energy and water among atmosphere,vegetation and soil explicitly and realistically.Thus the coupled SSiB-AGCM runs lead to the more conspicuous improvement in the simulated circulation,precipitation,mean water vapor content and its transport.particularly in the Asian monsoon region in the real world than CTL-AGCM runs.It is also pointed out that both the implementation of land surface parameterizations and the variations in land surface into the GOALS model have greatly improved hydrological balance over continents and have a significant impact on the simulated climate.particularly over the massive continents.Improved precipitation recycling model was employed to verify the mechanisms for land surface hydrology parameterizations on hydrological cycle and precipitation climatology in AGCM.It can be argued that the recycling precipitation rate is significantly reduced,particularly in the arid and semi-arid region of the boreal summer hemisphere,coincident with remarkable reduction in evapotranspiration over the continental area.Therefore the coupled SSiB-AGCM runs reduce the bias of too much precipitation over land surface in most AGCMs,thereby bringing the simulatedprecipitation closer to observations in many continental regions of the world than CTL-AGCMruns.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF EFFECTS OF LAND SURFACE PROCESSES ON CLIMATE——IMPLEMENTING OF SSiB IN IAP/LASG AGCM AND ITS PERFORMANCE

This is an investigation of exchanges of energy and water between the atmosphere and thevegetated continents,and the impact of and mechanisms for land surface-atmosphere interactionson hydrological cycle and general circulation by implementing the Simplified Simple Biosphere(SSiB)model in a modified version of IAP/LASG global spectral general model(L9R15 AGCM).This study reveals that the SSiB model produces a better partitioning of the land surface heat andmoisture fluxes and its diurnal variations,and also gives the transport of energy and water amongatmosphere,vegetation and soil explicitly and realistically.Thus the coupled SSiB-AGCM runslead to the more conspicuous improvement in the simulated circulation,precipitation,mean watervapor content and its transport.particularly in the Asian monsoon region in the real world thanCTL-AGCM runs.It is also pointed out that both the implementation of land surfaceparameterizations and the variations in land surface into the GOALS model have greatly improvedhydrological balance over continents and have a significant impact on the simulated climate.particularly over the massive continents.Improved precipitation recycling model was employed to verify the mechanisms for landsurface hydrology parameterizations on hydrological cycle and precipitation climatology in AGCM.It can be argued that the recycling precipitation rate is significantly reduced,particularly in the aridand semi-arid region of the boreal summer hemisphere,coincident with remarkable reduction inevapotranspiration over the continental area.Therefore the coupled SSiB-AGCM runs reduce thebias of too much precipitation over land surface in most AGCMs,thereby bringing the simulatedprecipitation closer to observations in many continental regions of the world than CTL-AGCMruns.     

陆面过程对气候影响的数值模拟:SSiB与IAP/LASG L9R15 AGCM耦合及其模式性能

利用陆面过程模式 SSi B与 IAP/LASG发展的 L9R1 5AGCM的耦合 1 0 a积分试验 ,研究了全球尺度大气与地表的水分和能量交换以及陆地与大气环流和气候的相互作用。模拟表明 :SSi B模式可模拟出陆地上较为真实的表面通量及其日变化 ,较好地定量描述土壤 -植被 -大气连续体系 ( SPAC)中能量和水分的传输过程。因此 ,将其引入气候模式中能够模拟出比 CTL- AGCM更合理的气候平均状态、水汽分布以及水汽输送的气候特征 ,特别是亚洲夏季风水汽输送独特的地域性 ,再现了大气环流 ,尤其是陆面气候的基本特征。并指出 ,陆面过程参数化的引进及其陆面状况的变化显著地改善了全球陆地上的水分平衡状况。利用改进的再循环降水模式 ,进一步研究了陆面过程参数化明显改进降水模拟的物理机制。指出全球陆地 ,特别是盛夏北半球干旱、半干旱地区的再循环降水率明显减小 ,与陆面上表面潜热通量的显著减小区一致 ,从而克服了许多未耦合陆面过程的 AGCMs因对地表水过程非常简单地参数化导致的普遍存在着整个陆地降水偏高 ,改善了全球陆地上的水分平衡状况。因此 ,在充分耦合的陆气环流模式中模拟的降水分布与实况接近。     

Remote sensing land surface wetness by use of TRMM/TMI microwave data

Summary The water cycle analysis is the most important part of the GEWEX project. In the water cycle analysis, the land surface wetness information plays an important role. TRMM/TMI is a new kind of microwave image unit, and has great potential application in land characteristics analysis, especially in remote sensing of land surface wetness information and the monitoring of flood and drought situations. In this study, the wetness index analysis method was used to analysis surface wetness during the summer of 1998 over Boyang and Tongting lake area in China, and we retrieved the land surface emissivity over the same area to estimate the land surface wetness. To accomplish this, we have first studied the TRMM/TMI forward characteristics. By using the VIDSORT model, we developed wetness indexes BWI by combining three window channels of TRMM/TMI. According to our analysis results, the wetness BWI10 are better than the other indexes. So we use the best wetness indexes (BWI10) sensitive to the land surface wetness changes to do our flood classification and monitoring. In our calibration/validation test, the data from the China L-SAR (located on an airplane) and the Canadian Radar-SAR aboard on the Radarsat were used. At the same time we also have tried to retrieve the surface microwave emissivity from the TMI data. We use the emissivity product to estimate the land surface wetness, and we also got a good result. Future work will focus on investigating possible improvements to the algorithm and extending the testing of the algorithm to other regions. Received October 10, 2001 Revised December 18, 2001     

长江流域1961-2000年蒸发量变化趋势研究

利用长江流域115个气象站点1961-2000年的观测数据,计算了各站点的参照蒸发量和实际蒸发量,并进行了20 cm蒸发皿蒸发量、参照蒸发量和实际蒸发量时空变化趋势分析。结果表明,近40 a来,长江流域蒸发皿蒸发量、参照蒸发量和实际蒸发量的年平均变化均呈现显著下降趋势。就季节平均变化而言,春季和秋季,三者的变化趋势都不明显,而夏季三者均具有显著的下降趋势,冬季蒸发皿蒸发量和参照蒸发量均显著下降,实际蒸发量却明显上升。蒸发量的变化趋势具有空间分布差异,长江流域中下游地区蒸发量的变化趋势明显比上游地区显著,尤其表现在夏季。尽管近20余年长江流域气温不断升高,但太阳净辐射和风速的显著下降,可能是导致蒸发量持续降低的主要原因。     

黄土高原陆面水分的凝结现象及收支特征试验研究

中国黄土高原是全球独特的地理区域,其陆面水分过程比较特殊。利用黄土高原陆面过程试验研究(LOPEX)的陇中黄土高原定西陆面过程综合观测站的资料,分析了陆面水分凝结现象及其出现频率与局地微气象条件的关系,研究了露水(霜)量及其出现频率的季节分布特征以及受降水和天气阴、晴的影响规律。同时,对比分析了降水、露水、雾水和土壤吸附水对陆面水分的贡献率,讨论了涡动相关法、蒸渗计和蒸发皿观测的陆面蒸发量的差别及其与陆面水分来源的年平衡关系,给出了半干旱区陆面水分平衡的日循环特征。发现露水对风速、大气湿度、近地层温度梯度的依赖很强,一般在风速为1.5 m/s、相对湿度大于80%和逆温强度为0.25℃的情况下露水(霜)量最大;刚降水后的晴天露水量比较大;实际蒸散量与蒸发力的差距十分明显,陆面水分平衡特征表现为一个"呼吸"过程。     

Albedo enhancement of marine clouds to counteract global warming: impacts on the hydrological cycle

Recent studies have shown that changes in solar radiation affect the hydrological cycle more strongly than equivalent CO₂ changes for the same change in global mean surface temperature. Thus, solar radiation management ??geoengineering?? proposals to completely offset global mean temperature increases by reducing the amount of absorbed sunlight might be expected to slow the global water cycle and reduce runoff over land. However, proposed countering of global warming by increasing the albedo of marine clouds would reduce surface solar radiation only over the oceans. Here, for an idealized scenario, we analyze the response of temperature and the hydrological cycle to increased reflection by clouds over the ocean using an atmospheric general circulation model coupled to a mixed layer ocean model. When cloud droplets are reduced in size over all oceans uniformly to offset the temperature increase from a doubling of atmospheric CO₂, the global-mean precipitation and evaporation decreases by about 1.3% but runoff over land increases by 7.5% primarily due to increases over tropical land. In the model, more reflective marine clouds cool the atmospheric column over ocean. The result is a sinking motion over oceans and upward motion over land. We attribute the increased runoff over land to this increased upward motion over land when marine clouds are made more reflective. Our results suggest that, in contrast to other proposals to increase planetary albedo, offsetting mean global warming by reducing marine cloud droplet size does not necessarily lead to a drying, on average, of the continents. However, we note that the changes in precipitation, evaporation and P-E are dominated by small but significant areas, and given the highly idealized nature of this study, a more thorough and broader assessment would be required for proposals of altering marine cloud properties on a large scale.     

GRAPES NOAH-LSM陆面模式水文过程的改进及试验研究

土壤含水量的计算影响着陆面过程的能量平衡和水量平衡,是陆面模式的核心计算要素之一。目前,GRAPES_Meso模式采用的NOAH-LSM(Noah-Land Surface Model)陆面模式既不能有效地表达径流产源面积的变动情况,也不能完整描述水文循环过程。本次试验针对以上问题对其进行了改进:(1)加入蓄水容量曲线,考虑网格内产流面积的变化及土壤含水量的不均匀性;(2)加入汇流模式,以考虑水平二维水分再分配,提高模式对径流和流量模拟能力。选取2008年8月至9月降水进行模拟试验,研究陆面水循环过程对近地面气象要素的影响。结果表明:改进后的模式模拟土壤湿度、2 m温度等近地面气象要素更接近观测值,并最终对降水量以及降水落区也产生了一定的影响。     

GCM response of the mean zonal surface heat and water budgets to a global sea surface temperature anomaly

Two sets of sensitivity experiments are presented. The first set consists of three 100-day integrations with perpetual January conditions: a reference integration, an integration with a uniform +2 K sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly, and an integration with an anomaly of reverse sign. The second set is similar, but with perpetual July conditions. The zonal mean components of the water and heat budgets at the surface are studied over ocean and over land separately.The values of the reference integration are very close to those obtained when the model is run with annual cycle conditions, and reasonably close to observed values over 60° N−40° S ocean. The SST anomalies produce generally a stronger response in July than in January. This response is linear for the averages over ocean, but if we consider the zonal distribution, only the longwave radiation, latent and sensible heat exhibit a linear response. The model response to temperature increase consists of an enhancement of the water cycle over ocean, and a heat transfer from the ocean, through the latent heat, to the continent. In January, we observe also a water transfer from the ocean to the continent. As a consequence of the heat transfer, the land surface temperature increases by the same magnitude as the SST.