滇西南勐海布朗山奥陶纪花岗岩锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素组成特征及其构造意义

对滇西南勐海布朗山花岗岩进行LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄测试,获得该花岗岩的~(206)Pb/~(238)U年龄加权平均值为458.5±3.0Ma(n=21,MSWD=2.3),属中—晚奥陶世的产物。样品锆石的ε_(Hf)(t)变化范围为-2.4～0.9之间,平均值为-0.9;亏损地壳模式年龄tDMC变化范围为1.41～1.58Ga,加权平均值为1.49Ga。岩石地球化学特征表明,该花岗岩具有高SiO_2(75.79%～77.56%)、富碱(K_2O+Na_2O=7.39%~8.42%)、中-高钾(K_2O/Na_2O=1.23～1.95)、低MgO(0.14%～0.27%)、低CaO(0.05%～0.64%)的特征。铝过饱和指数A/CNK值介于1.02～1.27之间,岩石属高钾钙碱性强过铝S型花岗岩。岩石稀土元素总体表现为由轻稀土元素富集型向平坦的"海鸥"型过渡,具强烈负Eu异常,δEu值为0.03～0.14;在原始地幔标准化微量元素蛛网图上,明显富集Rb、Th、Nd、Ta等元素,具有明显的Ba、Sr、P、Ti亏损。结合区域地质资料分析,该岩体的形成可能与原特提斯洋俯冲,以及古特提斯洋扩张成盆时,该区处于强烈挤压状态,持续的俯冲使澜沧陆壳残片地壳不断加厚并导致区域重力均衡隆升,引起深部地壳物质在加热后抬升减压发生部分熔融有关。     

青藏高原古特提斯洋早石炭世弧后拉张:来自A型花岗岩的证据

本文报道了羌塘中部冈玛错钾长花岗岩的锆石U-Pb定年、岩石地球化学和锆石Hf同位素分析结果。钾长花岗岩中的锆石具岩浆生长环带,未见继承的老核,并且锆石Th/U比值大于0.5(0.58~1.05),显示出典型岩浆成因的锆石特征。锆石LA-ICP-MS定年结果为352.4±1.9Ma,表明其形成时代为早石炭世。钾长花岗岩富硅(Si O_2=74.17%~77.88%),低铝(Al2O3=10.50%~11.98%),贫镁(Mg O=0.23%~0.36%),富碱(Na_2O+K_2O=5.74%~7.24%),Na_2OK_2O,K_2O/Na_2O=0.53~0.71,A/CNK=0.87~1.06,富集轻稀土元素和Zr、Hf、Rb、Th和U等元素,亏损Sr、Eu、P和Ti等元素,10000Ga/Al=3.12~4.14,显示出A2型花岗岩的地球化学特征。钾长花岗岩中锆石的εHf(t)值和Hf同位素两阶段模式年龄分别变化于+4.40~+12.14和549~985Ma,显示出正的、不均一的同位素组成,可能形成于壳-幔混合作用,其中幔源端元应当是伸展环境下上涌的地幔岩浆,而壳源端元则可能是扬子板块新元古代的新生地壳部分熔融形成的长英质岩浆。结合区域地质资料,认为该花岗岩可能形成于古特提斯洋壳对羌北-昌都板块北向俯冲引起的陆缘弧后拉张环境。     

赞比亚班韦乌卢地块花岗岩地球化学特征、锆石U-Pb年龄及Lu-Hf同位素组成

赞比亚班韦乌卢地块广泛出露花岗岩,LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年结果表明,黑云母花岗岩、二长花岗岩和正长花岗岩的形成时代为1934±27 Ma～1974±9 Ma。岩石地球化学分析结果表明,这些花岗岩SiO_2含量为69.4%～72.22%,K_2O含量为4.52%～5.08%,Na_2O含量为2.94%～3.11%,Al_2O_3含量为14.12%～14.65%,为高钾钙碱性过铝质I型花岗岩。花岗岩REE明显分异,铕负异常明显;大离子亲石元素Rb和K相对富集而Sr相对亏损;高场强元素Zr、Hf、U和Th相对富集,P、Ti、Nb和Ta相对亏损。锆石的ε_(Hf)(t)值变化范围为-2.7～3.9和-12.8～1.5,Hf同位素二阶段模式年龄(T_(DM2))为2.37 Ga～2.83 Ga和2.52 Ga～3.37 Ga,样品的年龄数据投点位于球粒陨石演化线两侧,说明原始岩浆是不均一的,班韦乌卢地块花岗岩原始岩浆可能为新太古代-古元古代壳幔混染物质。     

福建龙岩永福岩体锆石U-Pb年龄、地球化学特征及Lu-Hf同位素组成

永福岩体位于永梅晚古生代拗陷带中部。利用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年法测得永福岩体中YF-1样品的年龄为133±1 Ma(MSWD=0.50)、YF-2样品的年龄为143±1 Ma(MSWD=0.59),说明其形成于早白垩世,与燕山期岩浆活动有关。该岩体富硅、碱,里特曼指数σ=0.96~2.43,铝饱和指数(A/CNK)=0.98~1.66,属高钾钙碱性系列,准铝质到过铝质范围。稀土元素总量较高,LREE相对富集,HREE相对亏损;具中-弱Eu负异常,弱Ce负异常到无异常,轻重稀土的分馏较微弱;微量元素表现为亏损元素Ba、Sr、K、P和Ti,富集Th、U、Zr、Hf等元素。样品YF-2~YF-7具有S型花岗岩特征,为永福岩体主体,源岩可能来自古-中元古代下地壳沉积岩;而样品YF-1具有Ⅰ型花岗岩特征,源岩可能来自古-中元古代下地壳火成岩。锆石的εHf(t)值除一颗来自残留基底为正值外,其他锆石全部为负值(-4.30~-11.82),Hf同为素二阶段模式年龄tDM2为1.45~1.92 Ga,表明永福岩体可能形成于古老地壳物质的重融。岩体形成于燕山期地壳的伸展背景下,在岩石圈伸展作用下幔源岩浆底侵促使古-中元古代下地壳沉积岩先发生部分熔融,形成永福岩体早期的S型花岗岩,岩浆作用后期,古-中元古代下地壳火成岩部分熔融,形成永福岩体晚期的I型花岗岩。     

滇西腾冲地块梁河晚三叠世正长花岗岩地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学及其地质意义

本文对出露腾冲地块梁河正长花岗岩进行了全岩元素地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学和Hf同位素组成研究,旨在揭示正长花岗岩的侵位年龄、成因类型、源区性质及其构造环境。锆石U-Pb LA-ICP-MS定年表明,正长花岗岩形成年龄为~218Ma,表明该花岗岩体形成时代属于晚三叠世。地球化学特征研究表明,正长花岗岩具有高硅(SiO_2=70.28%~74.49%)、富碱(K_2O+Na_2O=6.81%~8.71%)、过铝质(A/CNK=1.00~1.12)、高钾钙碱性特征。微量元素显示岩体富集轻稀土元素,大离子亲石元素(K、Rb),亏损高场强元素(Nb、Ta、P、Ti、Ba、Sr、Eu)。大部分样品轻重稀土强烈分异(LREE/HREE=6.07~13.8)。综合样品的地球化学数据及矿物组合特征,判断该岩体为S型花岗岩,源区岩石主要为砂屑岩。锆石ε_(Hf)(t)值(-10.74~-4.14),二阶段模式年龄(tDMC)为1.5~1.9Ga,表明其源于古老地壳熔融。岩石具有相对低的锆饱和温度,平均为~655℃,说明其没有幔源岩浆的加入。本文研究结果表明,梁河晚三叠世正长花岗岩可能形成于后碰撞伸展背景下的古老地壳熔融。     

湘南王仙岭花岗岩体的锆石U-Pb年代学、地球化学、锆石Hf同位素特征及其地质意义

湘南王仙岭岩体由主体电气石黑云母花岗岩和侵入其内部的黑云母二长花岗岩组成,LA-MC-ICPMS锆石U-Pb定年显示电气石黑云母花岗岩形成于印支期(235.0±1.3Ma),黑云母二长花岗岩形成于燕山期(155.9±1.0Ma),表明该岩体是两期岩浆活动的产物。这两期岩石均为高钾钙碱性系列,A/CNK值为1.07～1.66,属过铝-强过铝质花岗岩类。稀土元素显示LREE富集,HREE亏损,Eu负异常明显(0.01～0.38)的特征。早期电气石黑云母花岗岩和晚期黑云母二长花岗岩的εHf(t)值分别为-7.92～+4.61和-10.66～-5.35;两阶段Hf模式年龄(tDM2)分别为1758～967Ma和1875～1538Ma。两期花岗岩均来自于古中元古代地壳物质重熔,其中早期电气石黑云母花岗岩在侵位上升过程中捕获了部分幔源老锆石,成岩过程中有少量地幔物质参与,且其源区具有高εHf(t)值的特点。综合前人研究成果,本文认为华南中生代印支期和燕山期均有钨锡矿化作用,印支期花岗质岩浆形成于碰撞挤压作用间隙伸展环境,而燕山期花岗质岩浆可能形成于大陆边缘弧后伸展环境。     

西秦岭江里沟复式岩体LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄、地球化学和Hf同位素特征及其地质意义

古特提斯洋在三叠纪时期沿现今勉略缝合带的闭合,标志着华北板块(NCB)和扬子板块(YZB)的最终拼贴完成。秦岭造山带西段发育印支期花岗岩浆活动,为该地区的成矿作用提供了有利的条件。对这些岩浆岩的形成时代、地化属性、演化、来源等的研究将有助于了解该时期的构造背景及动力学环境。本文以西秦岭北亚带的江里沟复式岩体作为研究对象,通过LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年、锆石Hf同位素测试和主微量元素分析,对该岩体进行了系统的研究。结果显示:江里沟复式岩体的三种主要岩性为斑状黑云母二长花岗岩、花岗斑岩和细粒花岗岩,加权平均年龄分别为:229.1±1.8Ma(MSWD=0.82)、222.5±1.4Ma(MSWD=0.41)和217.1±1.8Ma(MSWD=1.4),指示该岩体形成于晚三叠世。其地球化学性质具有高硅(SiO_2=72.67%~77.84%),富碱(K_2O+Na_2O=7.67%~8.75%),弱过铝质(A/CNK=1.01~1.06),高度分异(岩体由早至晚DI及Rb/Sr均升高,DI=88.9~95.36,Rb/Sr=1.76~12.19),富集Rb、Th、U、Ta、Zr、Hf和HREE元素特点,亏损Ba、Sr、P、Ti等元素;三个侵入体均发育明显负Eu异常(δEu=0.54~0.62、0.26~0.47、0.20~0.60);P_2O_5含量与SiO_2呈明显的负相关关系,而Y的含量反之,综合判定认为,岩体属高分异I型花岗岩。岩石形成温度从早至晚明显降低(平均由786℃至755℃)。εHf(t)值少数0外,绝大多数介于0.1~4.8之间,相应tDM2=0.95~1.25Ga。综合推断认为,江里沟岩体的原始岩浆是由部分熔融的岩石圈地幔与中新元古代的地壳混合,形成的混合岩浆,后经强烈的结晶分异作用形成江里沟复式岩体。     

兴蒙造山带西段乌珠新乌苏花岗岩岩石成因和构造背景:地球化学、U-Pb年代学和Sr-Nd-Hf同位素约束

兴蒙造山带的构造演化及古亚洲洋的闭合时限尚存在较大争议,沿缝合带出露的花岗岩的侵位时代和成因对于约束古亚洲洋的演化具有重要意义。乌珠新乌苏花岗岩位于兴蒙造山带西段的索伦缝合带内,其Na_2O+K_2O含量为7.14%～9.36%,Al_2O_3含量为13.18%～13.49%,K_2O/Na_2O为1.10～1.52,属于高钾钙碱性系列岩石。稀土总量富集(174.8×10~(-6)～213.7×10~(-6)),相对富集轻稀土元素,轻重稀土分异中等[(La/Yb)_N=3.68～5.41],Eu负异常明显。乌珠新乌苏花岗岩富集Rb、Th、Hf,亏损Nb、Sr、P、Ti等元素,符合典型高分异A型花岗岩的低Sr、高Yb、Eu负异常的特点,显示后碰撞花岗岩的特征,形成于造山后地壳减薄阶段。乌珠新乌苏花岗岩锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年显示其~(206)Pb/~(238)U加权平均年龄为279±2.7Ma(MSWD=1.6)和276±1.9Ma(MSWD=0.69)。正的全岩ε_(Nd)(t)值(2.1～2.7)和锆石ε_(Hf)(t)值(7.7～10.2)以及相对年轻的亏损地幔模式年龄(Nd的t_(DM2)为826～874Ma;Hf的t_(DM2)为655～931Ma),表明乌珠新乌苏花岗岩母岩浆可能来源于新元古代新生下地壳的部分熔融。综合花岗岩的地质地球化学、年代学及同位素特征,认为兴蒙造山带西段的乌珠新乌苏地区在早二叠世处于后碰撞的伸展环境。     

东昆仑早古生代造山后花岗岩的特征——以大干沟花岗岩为例

大干沟花岗岩体位于东昆仑金水口地区,其岩石类型主要为中粗粒正长花岗岩。该花岗岩的SiO_2含量为68.68%~71.12%,平均含量为69.84%;Al_2O_3含量为14.01%~15.40%,平均含量为14.82%;K_2O/Na_2O值高,为1.19~1.64,平均为1.40;铝饱和指数A/CNK值为0.98~1.02,平均为1.00,具有准铝质-弱过铝质花岗岩的特点。岩石稀土元素总量较高,LREE元素富集,具有明显的Eu负异常,相对原始地幔明显富集U、Th,亏损Ti、P、Nb、Ta等高场强元素和Ba、Sr等大离子亲石元素,具有A型花岗岩的特征。花岗岩εNd(t)0,为-5.6~-7.3,tDM=1.54~2.27 Ga,表明其物源可能主要为中元古代物质(金水口群),LA-ICP-MS锆石εHf(t)=-2.2~2.6,显著不同于地壳岩浆的Hf同位素组成,显示有地幔物质添加。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为392±2 Ma(MSWD=1.14)。结合区域构造演化和上述地球化学特征,认为大干沟岩体为早古生代造山后伸展阶段的产物,是东昆南地体与东昆北地体碰撞后地幔岩浆上涌及地壳熔融的结果。     

西秦岭闾井花岗岩体锆石U-Pb年龄、岩石地球化学及其意义

闾井岩体是西秦岭"五朵金花"岩体群的成员之一。岩石类型主要为似斑状黑云母二长花岗岩、含斑黑云母二长花岗岩、中细粒黑云母二长花岗岩及粗粒黑云母二长花岗岩。对似斑状黑云母二长花岗岩、粗粒黑云母二长花岗岩和中细粒黑云母二长花岗岩的LA-ICP-MS锆石U_Pb定年分别获得221±1 Ma(N=20,MSWD=0.11)、221±1 Ma(N=24,MSWD=0.04)和218±1 Ma(N=15,MSWD=0.13)的年龄,表明该岩体形成于晚三叠世,其中似斑状黑云母二长花岗岩比中细粒黑云母二长花岗岩形成略早。该花岗岩的A/CNK=1.02~1.16,Na_2O+K_2O=7.65%~8.84%,K_2O/Na_2O=1.37~1.82,属于过铝质-强过铝质、高钾钙碱性-钾玄岩系列,为I型花岗岩。稀土元素配分曲线为右倾型,轻、重稀土元素分馏明显,具有显著的负Eu异常。地球化学上总体富集Rb、Th、K元素,不同程度亏损Sr、Nb、P、Ti元素。锆石饱和温度计算显示,闾井岩体成岩温度为736~818℃。该岩体与"五朵金花"岩体群中的中川岩体具有相似的形成时代及地球化学特征,表明闾井岩体与中川岩体可能具有相似的成岩机制,其外围可能也具有和中川岩体一样的成矿潜力。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.