Reducing the Prediction Uncertainties of High-Impact Weather and Climate Events:An Overview of Studies at LASG

This paper summarizes recent progress at the State Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics(LASG), Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences in studies on targeted observations, data assimilation, and ensemble prediction, which are three effective strategies to reduce the prediction uncertainties and improve the forecast skill of weather and climate events. Considering the limitations of traditional targeted observation approaches, LASG researchers have developed a conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation-based targeted observation strategy to optimize the design of the observing network. This strategy has been employed to identify sensitive areas for targeted observations of the El Ni?o–Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean dipole, and tropical cyclones, and has been demonstrated to be effective in improving the forecast skill of these events. To assimilate the targeted observations into the initial state of a numerical model, a dimension-reducedprojection-based four-dimensional variational data assimilation(DRP-4DVar) approach has been proposed and is used operationally to supply accurate initial conditions in numerical forecasts. The performance of DRP-4DVar is good, and its computational cost is much lower than the standard 4DVar approach. Besides, ensemble prediction,which is a practical approach to generate probabilistic forecasts of the future state of a particular system, can be used to reduce the prediction uncertainties of single forecasts by taking the ensemble mean of forecast members. In this field, LASG researchers have proposed an ensemble forecast method that uses nonlinear local Lyapunov vectors(NLLVs) to yield ensemble initial perturbations. Its application in simple models has shown that NLLVs are more useful than bred vectors and singular vectors in improving the skill of the ensemble forecast. Therefore, NLLVs represent a candidate for possible development as an ensemble method in operational forecasts. Despite the considerable efforts made towards developing these methods to reduce prediction uncertainties, much challenging but highly important work remains in terms of improving the methods to further increase the skill in forecasting such weather and climate events.     

Insights into Convective-scale Predictability in East China: Error Growth Dynamics and Associated Impact on Precipitation of Warm-Season Convective Events

This study investigated the regime-dependent predictability using convective-scale ensemble forecasts initialized with different initial condition perturbations in the Yangtze and Huai River basin(YHRB) of East China. The scale-dependent error growth(ensemble variability) and associated impact on precipitation forecasts(precipitation uncertainties) were quantitatively explored for 13 warm-season convective events that were categorized in terms of strong forcing and weak forcing. The forecast error growth in the strong-forcing regime shows a stepwise increase with increasing spatial scale,while the error growth shows a larger temporal variability with an afternoon peak appearing at smaller scales under weak forcing. This leads to the dissimilarity of precipitation uncertainty and shows a strong correlation between error growth and precipitation across spatial scales. The lateral boundary condition errors exert a quasi-linear increase on error growth with time at the larger scale, suggesting that the large-scale flow could govern the magnitude of error growth and associated precipitation uncertainties, especially for the strong-forcing regime. Further comparisons between scale-based initial error sensitivity experiments show evident scale interaction including upscale transfer of small-scale errors and downscale cascade of larger-scale errors. Specifically, small-scale errors are found to be more sensitive in the weak-forcing regime than those under strong forcing. Meanwhile, larger-scale initial errors are responsible for the error growth after 4 h and produce the precipitation uncertainties at the meso-β-scale. Consequently, these results can be used to explain underdispersion issues in convective-scale ensemble forecasts and provide feedback for ensemble design over the YHRB.     

Effect of doubling the ensemble size on the performance of ensemble prediction in the warm season using MOGREPS implemented at the KMA

Using the Met Office Global and Regional Ensemble Prediction System (MOGREPS) implemented at the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA), the effect of doubling the ensemble size on the performance of ensemble prediction in the warm season was evaluated. Because a finite ensemble size causes sampling error in the full forecast probability distribution function (PDF), ensemble size is closely related to the efficiency of the ensemble prediction system. Prediction capability according to doubling the ensemble size was evaluated by increasing the number of ensembles from 24 to 48 in MOGREPS implemented at the KMA. The initial analysis perturbations generated by the Ensemble Transform Kalman Filter (ETKF) were integrated for 10 days from 22 May to 23 June 2009. Several statistical verification scores were used to measure the accuracy, reliability, and resolution of ensemble probabilistic forecasts for 24 and 48 ensemble member forecasts. Even though the results were not significant, the accuracy of ensemble prediction improved slightly as ensemble size increased, especially for longer forecast times in the Northern Hemisphere. While increasing the number of ensemble members resulted in a slight improvement in resolution as forecast time increased, inconsistent results were obtained for the scores assessing the reliability of ensemble prediction. The overall performance of ensemble prediction in terms of accuracy, resolution, and reliability increased slightly with ensemble size, especially for longer forecast times.     

Predictability of Ensemble Forecasting Estimated Using the Kullback–Leibler Divergence in the Lorenz Model

A new method to quantify the predictability limit of ensemble forecasting is presented using the Kullback–Leibler(KL)divergence(also called the relative entropy), which provides a measure of the difference between the probability distributions of ensemble forecasts and local reference(true) states. The KL divergence is applicable to a non-normal distribution of ensemble forecasts, which is a substantial improvement over the previous method using the ensemble spread. An example from the three-variable Lorenz model illustrates the effectiveness of the KL divergence, which can effectively quantify the predictability limit of ensemble forecasting. On this basis, the KL divergence is used to investigate the dependence of the predictability limit of ensemble forecasting on the initial states and the magnitude of initial errors. The local predictability limit of ensemble forecasting varies considerably with the initial states, as well as with the magnitude of initial errors. Further research is needed to examine the real-world applications of the KL divergence in measuring the predictability of ensemble weather forecasts.     

Heavy Rainfall Ensemble Prediction： Initial Condition Perturbation vs Multi-Physics Perturbation

Mesoscale ensemble is an encouraging technology for improving the accuracy of heavy rainfall predictions. Occurrences of heavy rainfall are closely related to convective instability and topography. In mid-latitudes, perturbed initial fields for medium-range weather forecasts are often configured to focus on the baroclinic instability rather than the convective instability. Thus, alternative approaches to generate initial perturba- tions need to be developed to accommodate the uncertainty of the convective instability. In this paper, an initial condition perturbation approach to mesoscale heavy rainfall ensemble prediction, named as Different Physics Mode Method （DPMM）, is presented in detail. Based on the PSU/NCAR mesoscale model MM5, an ensemble prediction experiment on a typical heavy rainfall event in South China is carried out by using the DPMM, and the structure of the initial condition perturbation is analyzed. Further, the DPMM ensem- ble prediction is compared with a multi-physics ensemble prediction, and the results show that the initial perturbation fields from the DPMM have a reasonable mesoscale circulation structure and could reflect the prediction uncertainty in the sensitive regions of convective instability. An evaluation of the DPMM ini- tial condition perturbation indicates that the DPMM method produces better ensemble members than the multi-physics perturbation method, and can significantly improve the precipitation forecast than the control non-ensemble run.     

Progress in Predictability Studies in China （2003-2006）

Since the last International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics General Assembly(2003),predictability studies in China have made significant progress.For dynamic forecasts,two novel approaches of conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation and nonlinear local Lyapunov exponents were proposed to cope with the predictability problems of weather and climate,which are superior to the corresponding linear theory.A possible mechanism for the"spring predictability barrier"phenomenon for the El Ni(?)o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)was provided based on a theoretical model.To improve the forecast skill of an intermediate coupled ENSO model,a new initialization scheme was developed,and its applicability was illustrated by hindcast experiments.Using the reconstruction phase space theory and the spatio-temporal series predictive method, Chinese scientists also proposed a new approach to improve dynamical extended range(monthly)prediction and successfully applied it to the monthly-scale predictability of short-term climate variations.In statistical forecasts,it was found that the effects of sea surface temperature on precipitation in China have obvious spatial and temporal distribution features,and that summer precipitation patterns over east China are closely related to the northern atmospheric circulation.For ensemble forecasts,a new initial perturbation method was used to forecast heavy rain in Guangdong and Fujian Provinces on 8 June 1998.Additionally, the ensemble forecast approach was also used for the prediction of a tropical typhoons.A new downscaling model consisting of dynamical and statistical methods was provided to improve the prediction of the monthly mean precipitation.This new downsealing model showed a relatively higher score than the issued operational forecast.     

Dynamic analogue initialization for ensemble forecasting

This paper introduces a new approach for the initialization of ensemble numerical forecasting: Dynamic Analogue Initialization (DAI). DAI assumes that the best model state trajectories for the past provide the initial conditions for the best forecasts in the future. As such, DAI performs the ensemble forecast using the best analogues from a full size ensemble. As a pilot study, the Lorenz63 and Lorenz96 models were used to test DAI’s effectiveness independently. Results showed that DAI can improve the forecast significantly. Especially in lower-dimensional systems, DAI can reduce the forecast RMSE by ～50% compared to the Monte Carlo forecast (MC). This improvement is because DAI is able to recognize the direction of the analysis error through the embedding process and therefore selects those good trajectories with reduced initial error. Meanwhile, a potential improvement of DAI is also proposed, and that is to find the optimal range of embedding time based on the error’s growing speed.     

Bias-Corrected Short-Range Ensemble Forecasts for Near-Surface Variables during the Summer Season of 2010 in Northern China

A running mean bias （RMB） correction ap- proach was applied to the forecasts of near-surface variables in a seasonal short-range ensemble forecasting experiment with 57 consecutive cases during summer 2010 in the northern China region. To determine a proper training window length for calculating RMB, window lengths from 2 to 20 days were evaluated, and 16 days was taken as an optimal window length, since it receives most of the benefit from extending the window length. The raw and 16-day RMB corrected ensembles were then evaluated for their ensemble mean forecast skills. The results show that the raw ensemble has obvious bias in all near-surface variables. The RMB correction can remove the bias reasonably well, and generate an unbiased ensemble. The bias correction not only reduces the ensemble mean forecast error, but also results in a better spreaderror relationship. Moreover, two methods for computing calibrated probabilistic forecast （PF） were also evaluated through the 57 case dates： 1） using the relative frequency from the RMB-eorrected ensemble; 2） computing the forecasting probabilities based on a historical rank histogram. The first method outperforms the second one, as it can improve both the reliability and the resolution of the PFs, while the second method only has a small effect on the reliability, indicating the necessity and importance of removing the systematic errors from the ensemble.     

Ensemble Forecasts of Tropical Cyclone Track with Orthogonal Conditional Nonlinear Optimal Perturbations

This paper preliminarily investigates the application of the orthogonal conditional nonlinear optimal perturbations(CNOPs)–based ensemble forecast technique in MM5(Fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University–National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model). The results show that the ensemble forecast members generated by the orthogonal CNOPs present large spreads but tend to be located on the two sides of real tropical cyclone(TC) tracks and have good agreements between ensemble spreads and ensemble-mean forecast errors for TC tracks. Subsequently, these members reflect more reasonable forecast uncertainties and enhance the orthogonal CNOPs–based ensemble-mean forecasts to obtain higher skill for TC tracks than the orthogonal SVs(singular vectors)–, BVs(bred vectors)– and RPs(random perturbations)–based ones. The results indicate that orthogonal CNOPs of smaller magnitudes should be adopted to construct the initial ensemble perturbations for short lead–time forecasts, but those of larger magnitudes should be used for longer lead–time forecasts due to the effects of nonlinearities. The performance of the orthogonal CNOPs–based ensemble-mean forecasts is case-dependent,which encourages evaluating statistically the forecast skill with more TC cases. Finally, the results show that the ensemble forecasts with only initial perturbations in this work do not increase the forecast skill of TC intensity, which may be related with both the coarse model horizontal resolution and the model error.     

Ensemble hindcasts of ENSO events over the past 120 years using a large number of ensembles

Based on an intermediate coupled model (ICM), a probabilistic ensemble prediction system (EPS) has been developed. The ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) data assimilation approach is used for generating the initial ensemble conditions, and a linear, first-order Markov-Chain SST anomaly error model is embedded into the EPS to provide model-error perturbations. In this study, we perform ENSO retrospective forecasts over the 120 year period 1886–2005 using the EPS with 100 ensemble members and with initial conditi...     

上海地区春季最高气温预报失败案例分析

本文分析了2015年3月17—18日上海地区连续两天发生最高气温预报失误的天气背景,并使用当日实况观测和业务预报使用的数值模式资料,剖析预报失败的原因,分析表明:对天空状况的误判是导致17日预报失败的主要原因,且东南风预报偏强更进一步增大了预报误差;冷空气影响时间的判断失误是导致18日预报失败的主要原因。从模式预报的实时检验、预报的跳跃性和不确定性角度分析了预报中存在的问题:预报员应重视本地和上游实况,从传统对单一确定性模式预报的依赖向多模式多起报时次及能提供概率预报和不确定性信息的业务集合预报的分析思路转型。此外,还需加强对集合预报的系统性检验、评估及数值预报释用产品的开发,增加包含不确定性信息的公众天气预报发布形式。     

集合敏感性在预报误差及可预报性研究中的应用进展综述

研究大气的可预报性和预报误差产生的原因,对于改进数值预报,提升业务预报技巧具有重要意义。集合敏感性基于具有流依赖特性的集合预报,通过建立预报与初始场或前期预报大气状态之间的统计关系,为揭示与预报对象可预报性相关的动力学特征及理解预报误差来源和传播机制提供了一种新方法。同时,介绍了集合敏感性的定义和度量,并综述了其针对典型天气系统和高影响天气事件研究的进展,并讨论了该方法的优势和局限性。     

预报异常极端高影响天气的 “集合异常预报法”：以北京2012年7月21日特大暴雨为例

对罕见极端高影响天气,既使一个模式有能力预报它,其数值预报也至少有以下难点:一是有多大把握确定所预报的天气是极端事件？二是其具体的定时、定量、定点预报可靠吗？本文介绍了集合预报和气候资料相结合的 “集合异常预报法”,并通过北京2012年7月21日（7.21）特大暴雨事件揭示出“集合异常预报法”和集合预报可以提供比单一模式预报更可靠和更准确的信息,从而可有效地缓解上述两大难点。作者建议中央气象台和其他有条件的台站可采用这种办法提高重大灾害性天气的预报能力。文中具体讨论了如下三方面:（1）标准化异常度（SA）的定义以及它同集合预报相结合提高对罕见极端高影响天气预报的可靠性,并由此可导出一个“社会影响矩阵”来定量地表达一个预报对社会的潜在影响;（2）利用集合预报,特别是多模式集合预报可以克服单一模式前后预报的跳跃性或不连续性问题,由此可延长实际可预报时效,如北京7.21事件超过100 mm大暴雨的实际可预报时效提前了2天;（3）SA还有助于认识异常天气发生的原因:从SA的分布看,造成北京7.21 大暴雨事件的短期天气尺度背景因素是从西北方向移来的冷锋和台风倒槽的相遇;从SA的演变看,该事件的中期大背景因素是在北京东北方向有阻塞高压发展并导致北京以西地区的低槽加强和发展（地面强冷空气堆积）,在高纬度形成了一个高、低压系统相间的波列,发展并维持,同时诱导热带系统北进。     

基于动力降尺度的区域集合预报初值扰动构建方法研究

利用全球集合预报系统资料(Global Ensemble Forecast System,GEFS),基于WRF中尺度模式构建了区域集合预报系统,区域集合初值的构建采用两种方案,一种是GEFS全球集合预报初值场直接动力降尺度(称为DOWN集合),另一种是提取GEFS全球集合降尺度后的扰动场,并叠加到区域数值预报系统(北京快速更新循环数值预报系统:Beijing Rapid Update Cycle System,BJ-RUC)分析场上构建集合初值场(称为D-RUC集合)。进行了批量试验,通过对比发现D-RUC集合的中小尺度扰动增长优于DOWN集合,而大尺度扰动分量的增长两者相当,说明与高分辨率分析场叠加可以促进动力降尺度扰动的中小尺度扰动分量的增长。集合预报扰动准确性检验结果显示,短预报时效内DOWN集合扰动明显低估了预报误差,在预报误差较大的位置扰动较小,而D-RUC集合能够更好地识别预报场中哪些位置预报误差较大,而哪些位置预报误差较小。集合预报检验结果表明,D-RUC方法能显著改善短时效预报效果,集合离散度有所增加、均方根误差有所减少,概率预报评分显示D-RUC集合比DOWN集合在短预报时效占优。降水个例分析结果表明D-RUC方法能显著改善短时效内的降水概率预报效果。     

多模式集成的概率天气预报和气候预测研究进展

基于大气的混沌特性,单一的确定性预报逐步向多值的不确定性概率预报转化已成为一种趋势。本文系统地评述了概率天气预报产生的背景,介绍了概率预报的相关概念及国内外的研究状况,着重讨论了多模式集成的概率预报的两种集成方法,即贝叶斯模式平均(Bayesian model averaging,BMA)和多元高斯集合核拟合法(Gaussian ensemble kernel dressing,GEKD),并给出了两个例子的概率预报试验结果。利用BMA方法制作的概率预报的方差较小,减小了预报的不确定性,因此预报结果更接近大气的真实值。作为另一种多模式集成方法,多元高斯集合核拟合法回报的地面气温距平均值及趋势的概率预测结果与实测结果基本一致。利用此方法建立了地面气温年代际变化的概率多模式集合预测模型,并从中提取年代际气候变化特征,对东亚季风区年代际预测具有重要应用价值。     

集合数值预报在洪水预报中的应用进展

水文集合预报是近几年正在形成和发展的水文预报分支,其发展大致可分为两个阶段:第1阶段是1970年至20世纪末进行的长期径流预报,第2阶段从21世纪开始,主要学习气象数值预报中集合预报的概念在短期水文集合预报中的应用。目前,除了单一预报中心的集合预报系统在水文集合预报中应用外,多个预报中心的集合预报大集合也逐渐被应用于流域水文预报,甚至一些小流域的洪水预报。如利用TIGGE(THORPEX Interactive Grand Global Ensemble)集合预报驱动形成的大气-水文-水力的串联系统进行早期的洪水预警研究,将全球集合预报作为洪水模型输入的有限区域模式的初始条件和侧边界条件的研究。这些均表明,基于水文集合预报的洪水预报增加了预报附加值,并能够延长预警提前时间。以欧洲中期天气预报中心的欧洲洪水预警系统(EFAS)和美国NOAA的先进水文预报系统(AHPS)为代表,实现了集合预报在洪水中的实时业务预报,但仍存在数据处理和计算量大,以及如何基于集合水文预报做决策等问题。对于水文集合预报的前处理和后处理的各种技术已处于探索和验证阶段,如何更好地理解基于概率预报的洪水预警决策仍存在许多困难和挑战。     

基于最新全球集合预报系统的可预报性评估

为了提供有价值且可靠的概率(或者不确定性)预报,最新的全球集合预报系统已在美国国家环境预报中心日常业务运行,以满足社会需求。通过对各个关键要素的概率预报统计检验,可为广大用户提供这些概率预报的信心指数。但是预报(或集合预报)能力不仅取决于我们使用的预测要素,而且与时间和空间分辨率,极端事件或者高影响天气,以及预报时效有关。以大尺度天气系统预报为例,通常选择北半球500 hPa位势高度距平相关指数或概率指数表征模式的预报能力。如参照北半球500 hPa位势高度的距平相关指数(60%AC)或概率预报技巧指数(25%CRPSS),美国全球集合预报系统能够提供大约10 d的技巧预报。从全球集合预报系统输出的各预报要素,满足不同时空尺度需求的角度进行讨论,其可预报性(或预报极限)能够为模式研发人员、一线预报员和用户提供参考。尤其是对大气可预报性的深入研究,对于从科学与技术角度全面提升数值预报系统水平非常重要。当能够确定可预报性(或是预报误差)的真实来源时,科学家(包括模式研发人员)就能够有针对性地修改与完善。将传统的可预报性研究与改进的能够更客观地表述预报不确定性的集合预报相结合,所得可预报性将提供另一种有价值的参考。可预报性研究总体表明,全球集合预报系统对行星波、大尺度和天气尺度的系统(或者过程)可能分别具备约15、12、10 d的预报能力。对于热带天气过程的预报,如果进一步改善模式偏差和物理参数化过程,其MJO(Madden-Julian Oscillation)预报技巧可以延长至32.5 d。     

集合预报对台风天鹅(2015)远距离暴雨的不确定性研究

2015年8月23—24日期间台风天鹅引发华东中部沿海地区出现暴雨或大暴雨天气。基于欧洲中期天气预报中心的集合预报分析导致此次远距离暴雨预报不确定的关键原因,并利用集合敏感性分析方法研究影响此次暴雨过程的主要天气系统的敏感区域,此外对暴雨发生发展的热动力机制展开探讨,主要结论包括:集合预报对此次台风天鹅引起的远距离暴雨的可预报性明显偏低,仅在暴雨发生前24 h才做出较大调整。在不同起报时次下,当台风路径的系统性偏差最小时,台风降水集合预报也最接近实况,但是进一步的分析表明,台风路径误差与降水量级之间的对应关系并不确定。不同雨量成员组间中低层环流场的对比分析表明:高空槽的预报差异是集合预报不确定的主要原因,高空槽东移加深有利于增加暴雨区的斜压不稳定,也有利于增强对流层低层的水汽输送急流带。500 hPa高度场的敏感性分析表明无论是初始场还是预报场,暴雨区平均降雨量均与高空槽的东移和加深显著相关,且随着预报时次的临近,显著相关区域向低槽下游明显扩大。此外还发现高空槽的东移有利于增强(减弱)暴雨区左(右)侧低层冷空气的强度,使得台风右侧更多暖湿气流向暴雨区输送。     

Reducing the prediction uncertainties of high-impact weather and climate events: An overview of studies at LASG

This paper summarizes recent progress at the State Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics (LASG), Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences in studies on targeted observations, data assimilation, and ensemble prediction, which are three effective strategies to reduce the prediction uncertainties and improve the forecast skill of weather and climate events. Considering the limitations of traditional targeted observation approaches, LASG researchers have developed a conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation-based targeted observation strategy to optimize the design of the observing network. This strategy has been employed to identify sensitive areas for targeted observations of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean dipole, and tropical cyclones, and has been demonstrated to be effective in improving the forecast skill of these events. To assimilate the targeted observations into the initial state of a numerical model, a dimension-reducedprojection- based four-dimensional variational data assimilation (DRP-4DVar) approach has been proposed and is used operationally to supply accurate initial conditions in numerical forecasts. The performance of DRP-4DVar is good, and its computational cost is much lower than the standard 4DVar approach. Besides, ensemble prediction, which is a practical approach to generate probabilistic forecasts of the future state of a particular system, can be used to reduce the prediction uncertainties of single forecasts by taking the ensemble mean of forecast members. In this field, LASG researchers have proposed an ensemble forecast method that uses nonlinear local Lyapunov vectors (NLLVs) to yield ensemble initial perturbations. Its application in simple models has shown that NLLVs are more useful than bred vectors and singular vectors in improving the skill of the ensemble forecast. Therefore, NLLVs represent a candidate for possible development as an ensemble method in operational forecasts. Despite the considerable efforts made towards developing these methods to reduce prediction uncertainties, much challenging but highly important work remains in terms of improving the methods to further increase the skill in forecasting such weather and climate events.