断裂输导流体的机制及输导形式探讨

张性正断层断裂带一般具有二分结构,即断层核和破裂带,断层核伴生裂缝、连通孔隙及破裂带诱导裂缝均可作为输导流体的通道.断裂活动具有幕式的特征,一次活动周期可以分为活动期、活动—间歇过渡期和间歇期3个阶段,断裂活动期以伴生裂缝为优势输导通道,一般以“地震泵”控制下的幕式运移机制为主;活动间歇期输导能力较弱,通道为连通孔隙,遵循浮力控制下的缓慢渗流机制;而活动—间歇过渡期兼具有活动期和间歇期的部分特征,主要输导通道为破裂带诱导裂缝.断裂输导具有3个方向的运移分量,即沿断裂纵向方向、沿断裂走向方向和横穿断层面方向,与此相对应,目前断裂输导形式分为“2型4类”,包括沿断层面输导和横穿断层面输导两大类型,其中,沿断层面输导型又可分为沿断裂纵向向上输导、沿断裂走向输导和沿断裂向下“倒灌”式输导3类.沿断裂纵向向上输导是目前最重要的断裂输导形式,进一步分为3种亚类,即线性输导、“Y”形输导和似花状输导,似花状输导所占比例最大.具体的输导形式及方向取决于活动时期断裂与两侧地层的配置关系及多种运移动力、阻力的矢量合.     

“不协调伸展”作用下裂陷盆地断层的形成演化模式

应用“不协调伸展”的目标砂箱模拟实验成果和新的脆性断裂力学模型——“不协调性准则”,分析了裂陷盆地断层形成和演化的控制影响因素,建立了裂陷盆地断裂系统形成和演化的新模式——“不协调伸展”模式。该模式显示：“不协调伸展”的递进变形过程是导致裂陷盆地断裂系统的复杂性的根本原因,实质是不同方向、性质和规模的基底先存构造(主要是先存断裂)的活动性方面存在差异,导致所控制形成的断层在走向、形成的先后次序、规模等方面存在差异,从而形成复杂的断层组合;“不协调伸展”模式是裂陷盆地断裂系统形成和演化的基本型式,复杂的断裂系统可以在方向不变的区域伸展构造作用下在递进变形过程中逐渐形成;裂陷盆地断裂系统虽然比较复杂,但断层的形成和演化是有序的,分布是有规律的,可以通过“不协调性准则”加以分析和预测。     

断层岩中变形矿物的镶嵌状消光及其成因

本文研究了断层岩中变形矿物内部常见的显微构造现象——镶嵌状消光的特征及其产出状态、形成条件和机制。具镶嵌状消光的矿物实质是由若干细粒级的、互相紧密嵌合的碎裂消光亚晶粒组成,它们在形态、粒级以及产出、分布等方面都具一定的特征。该微构造现象是在相对低温、较高差异应力条件下形成的,为岩石脆性或韧脆性变形的结果,为一低温动态回复现象,属位错作用下的亚晶粒旋转形成机制。依据研究结果,作者将矿物在低温条件下碎裂作用的演化过程划分为位错→位错壁→碎裂亚晶粒→碎裂新晶集合体等四个阶段,并确定了镶嵌状消光现象的判別准则。     

断层岩中变形矿物的镶嵌状消光及其成因

本文研究了断层岩中变形矿物内部常见的显微构造现象——镶嵌状消光的特征及其产出状态、形成条件和机制.具镶嵌状消光的矿物实质是由若干细粒级的、互相紧密嵌合的碎裂消光亚晶粒组成,它们在形态、粒级以及产出、分布等方面都具一定的特征.该微构造现象是在相对低温、较高差异应力条件下形成的,为岩石脆性或韧脆性变形的结果,为一低温动态回复现象,属位错作用下的亚晶粒旋转形成机制.依据研究结果,作者将矿物在低温条件下碎裂作用的演化过程划分为位错→位错壁→碎裂亚晶粒→碎裂新晶集合体等四个阶段,并确定了镶嵌状消光现象的判别准则.     

青川断裂带中段断层泥中石英颗粒表面微形貌特征及其年代学意义

断层泥作为断裂脆性剪切变形的产物,记录了断层滑动方式和活动时间等信息,尤其是断层泥中石英颗粒表面微形貌特征的识别和统计,可以为估算断层活动相对时间提供证据。青川断裂作为秦岭构造带的南界,晚新生代以来发生右旋走滑运动,沿断裂带出露完整的断层破碎带,断层泥非常发育。本文以该断裂带中段:木鱼—大安段发育的青灰色和紫红色断层泥为研究对象,在野外调查的基础上,重点对断层泥中石英颗粒表面的微形貌进行了扫描电子显微镜观察,发现两类(Ⅱ和Ⅲ类)中-深度溶蚀石英形貌和一类(Ia类)弱溶蚀石英形貌,未见Io类破裂微形貌。石英微形貌类型的统计结果指示青川断裂中段最新活动时间在晚更新世,全新世没有明显活动,与断裂带全新世河流阶地未发生构造扰动的现象一致。     

从断裂带内部结构出发评价断层垂向封闭性的方法

脆性断层和塑性断层断裂带内部结构存在差异: 脆性断层断裂带由以断层岩和伴生裂缝为特征的破碎带和诱导裂缝带2部分组成; 塑性断层断裂带表现为几条充填断层泥大裂缝的组合, 诱导裂缝带不发育.破碎带内部伴生裂缝、无粘结力断层岩带和诱导裂缝带都可能成为油气运移的通道, 只有这3种通道均封闭, 脆性断层垂向才是封闭的.只要伴生裂缝封闭, 塑性断层就是封闭的.基于这种封闭机理, 分析了3种通道封闭的条件: 无粘结力断层岩带是否封闭取决于断层泥含量大小; 破碎带内部伴生裂缝的封闭性取决于断面压力和断层泥塑性强度关系; 诱导裂缝带封闭程度受控于后期成岩充填的程度.提出了利用断面压力、断层泥的含量和塑性强度、后期成岩程度综合判定不同性质断层垂向封闭性评价方法.并利用该方法对克拉2构造F₁断层垂向封闭性进行了评价, 结果表明F₁断层垂向封闭性具有分段性: ①和③段均表现为脆性, 但①段因诱导裂缝没有被充填不封闭, ③段是封闭的; ②段是塑性断层, 垂向封闭性好.这是克拉2构造有大规模天然气聚集成藏的关键因素之一.      

逆断层控制构造裂缝发育的力学机制模拟

在探讨逆断层对构造裂缝控制作用的基础上, 应用Comsol有限元软件, 模拟不同水平作用力、不同岩性、不同断层倾角和距断层面远近等因素影响下断层及其周边区域的应力、应变情况, 并分析了不同控制因素下构造裂缝发育的规律。模拟结果表明, 构造裂缝的发育程度随施加的水平应力作用增大而线性增大; 岩石破裂前产生的应变量可用来描述岩石的脆性, 抗压强度对岩石破裂起主导作用, 而岩石的抗剪强度与岩石破裂发育有一定的相关性; 逆断层倾角存在一个临界角度, 使构造裂缝发育最为强烈; 逆断层控制裂缝发育, 距离断裂面越远裂缝发育程度越低, 并存在一个发育程度骤减的范围, 称为"断裂控制带", 该断裂控制带的形成和分布应该与断裂的性质、规模、断距及岩石力学参数等有关。      

衡山西缘界牌混合岩带若干问题探讨

位于衡山西缘的界牌混合岩带是一个由早期的眼球状混合岩和晚期的条痕混合岩组成的复式岩带,其原岩为高变质相的韧性变形变质岩。根据其产出的地质环境及其中丰富的同混合和晚混合变形组构,界牌混合岩属断裂混合岩,不应划归白石峰岩体或南岳岩体。它们之间的紧密共生构成了“韧性变形变质岩—断裂混合岩—重熔花岗岩”三位一体组合,代表了断裂从韧性变形变质→混合岩化→重熔的递进变形变质序列。     

高要—高明剥离拉伸体系对长坑金,银矿床的控制

高要－高明剥离拉伸体系，是印支运动以后产生的拉伸（伸展）构造，它由剥离断层、变质核杂岩、断陷盆地和脆性正断层系组成，是控制长坑金、银矿的区域构造。脆性正断层系中的一条上三叠统与下伏印支期褶皱基底之间的区域性滑覆断裂是长坑金、银矿床的容矿构造。滑覆断层沿着古Ｕ形谷滑覆时所产生的“构造洼斗”和与“构造洼斗”沟通的基底断裂是长坑大型矿床形成的重要条件。     

油气运移通道及其对成藏的控制

通过油气在地下岩石中运移通道空间类型的分析,指出孔隙、裂缝和孔隙—裂缝组合是油气运移通道的三种主要类型。据此提出油气在地下运移的三种基本输导层为连通砂体、断层和不整合面,它们在地下又可构成砂体—不整合面、砂体—断层、由不整合面—断层、砂体—断层—不整合面四种组合,成为油气运移的立体网络通道。油气运移通道类型控制着油气成藏模式。连通砂体输导层可控制地层超覆、岩性尖灭、断层遮挡油气藏的形成;不整合面、不整合面—砂体组合、断层—不整合面组合构成的输导层可控制基岩风化壳油气藏的形成;断裂、砂体—断层组合、砂体—断层—不整合面组合构成的输导层可控制断块、背斜、构造—岩性和断层—岩性油气藏的形成。     

PROGRESSIVE COALESCENCE MODEL FOR BRITTLE FAULT FORMATION AND ITS MECHANISM

In shallow crust, faults often consist of a series of secondary fractures. Based on experimental micro-features in rock mechanics and macro-structures in field, the progressive coalescence model, in which a brittle fault evolved from micro-crack, stylolitic fracture, large fault to super-large fault, is founded, and its forming mechanism is discussed by variation of stress field. At last the undulation,branches of faults and the phenomenon that the angle between fractures and the principal stress axis decreases gradually are explained by the G. C. Sih model.     

PROGRESSIVE COALESCENCE MODEL FOR BRITTLE FAULT FORMATION AND ITS MECHANISM

In shallow crust, faults often consist of a series of secondary fractures. Based on experimental micro-features in rock mechanics and macro-structures in field, the progressive coalescence model, in which a brittle fault evolved from micro-crack, stylolitic fracture, large fault to super-large fault, is founded, and its forming mechanism is discussed by variation of stress field. At last the undulation,branches of faults and the phenomenon that the angle between fractures and the principal stress axis decreases gradually are explained by the G. C. Sih model.     

Model experiments showing simultaneous development of folds and transcurrent faults

Simultaneous development of noncylindrical folds and transcurrent fractures has been studied using model techniques. A plasticine model was compressed in one direction and an initial formation of folds was followed by the initiation of conjugate sets of transcurrent fractures. It was recorded that with progressive deformation the length of each fracture and the displacement along it increase steadily and the rate of displacement varies at different stages of deformation. Individual fold geometries vary along their hinge lines and these geometrical variations appear to be due to interference of folds with the transcurrent fractures. These interference effects also change the amount of rotation of fractures. Fold structures are different on either side of the fault plane. A natural example from the Bude area, England, shows similar geometrical features.The method of determining fault displacement by comparing the positions of fold hinge lines on either side of a fault is discussed in the light of the above results.     

From surface fault traces to a fault growth model: The Vogar Fissure Swarm of the Reykjanes Peninsula,Southwest Iceland

The Vogar Fissure Swarm is one of four en-echelon fracture swarms that connect the Reykjanes Ridge to the South Iceland Seismic Zone and the Western Volcanic Zone. Occurring in an area of flat topography, this fissure swarm is clearly visible at the surface, where it can be seen to affect recent postglacial lavas. Using remote sensing methods to identify and measure all the faults and fractures in the swarm, combined with additional field observations and measurements, we measured 478 individual fractures, 33% of them being faults and 67% being fissures. The fracture lengths show roughly log-normal distributions. Most of the individual fractures belong to 68 main composite fractures, seven of which are longer than 2500 m and correspond to the main fault scarps of the fissure swarm. We showed that these main faults are distributed along five, equally spaced zones, ∼500 m apart and a few kilometers long. We drawn 71 across-strike profiles to characterize the shape of the fault scarps, and 5 along-strike profiles to characterize the evolution of vertical throw along the main faults. Each fault consists of a coalescence of individual segments of approximately equal length. Fault throws are never larger than 10 m and are smallest at the junctions between individual segments. Analyses of along-strike throw profiles allowed us to determine the early stages of growth after coalescence. The earliest stage is characterized by an increase in the throw of the central parts of segments. This is followed by a second stage during which the throw increases at the junctions between segments, progressively erasing these small-throw zones.     

Analogue modeling of overlapping spreading centers: insights into their propagation and coalescence

The propagation and segmentation of mid-ocean ridges is studied using centrifuged analogue models built with non-linear materials. The deformation of the brittle-ductile model is controlled by diapiric uprise of buoyant analogous asthenospheric material induced by a centrifugal body force. This linear upwelling laterally stretches the model mantle that, in turn, induces failure in the upper layer simulating the brittle crust. Arrays of fractures initiate within zones of high stress concentration above the diapir. Fractures propagate laterally in a direction perpendicular to the maximum tensile (the minimum principal) stress. Secondary tension cracks initiate in the vicinity of parent fracture tips. Through-going fractures that crosscut the model surface develop by short fractures propagating toward each other and coalescing in different types of patterns. The overlap, overstep and inclination of fractures developed at the initial stage of extension control their subsequent growth and coalescence. Non-overlapping sub-parallel fractures propagate along nearly straight paths and coalesce to produce a single planar fracture. If overlapping fractures are parallel, they propagate towards each other along curved paths that enclose an intervening elliptical core of intact material. Fracture curvature in this case results from crack–crack interaction and is similar to that of overlapping spreading centers (OSCs) observed along mid-ocean ridges. Overlapping non-parallel fractures tend to coalesce by one of their tips propagating sub-parallel to the spreading direction toward the other fracture. Such offsets can serve as models for the development of the orthogonal ridge-transform fault patterns common along mid-ocean ridges.     

动载下3条断续裂隙岩样的裂缝贯通机制

采用含3条断续预制裂隙的类砂岩模型试样进行单轴动力加载试验,对不同裂隙空间位置条件下断续裂隙岩体中裂隙的贯通机制进行了研究。静、动荷载下的对比研究成果显示：不同空间位置的裂隙贯通方式存在较大差异,且对动载的响应不同;动载下分支裂纹扩展及贯通具有惯性效应,即动载下裂尖次生共面、次生倾斜裂纹起裂后易朝原起裂方向快速发展,动载下易在两预制裂隙内端部产生直接贯通。这与静载下岩桥处的贯通常通过分支裂纹拐折扩展、相连不同,这也是导致裂隙试样中低应变速率下强度增大（即速率效应）的主要原因。同时,试验结果也表明：含裂隙试样静、动荷载下裂隙间的多次贯通是导致其呈现出渐进破坏特征的主要原因。     

Fault zone development and strain partitioning in an extensional strike-slip duplex: A case study from the Mesozoic Atacama fault system, Northern Chile

Upper crustal strike-slip duplexes provide an excellent opportunity to address the fundamental question of fault zone development and strain partitioning in an evolving system. Detailed field mapping of the Mesozoic Atacama fault system in the Coastal Cordillera of Northern Chile documents the progressive development of second- and third-order faults forming a duplex at a dilational jog between two overstepping master faults: the sinistral strike-slip, NNW-striking, Jorgillo and Bolfin faults. These are constituted by a meter-wide core of foliated S-C ultracataclasite and cataclasite, flanked by a damage zone of protocataclasite, splay faults and veins. Lateral separation of markers along master faults is on the order of a few kilometers. Second-order, NW-striking, oblique-slip subsidiary fault zones do not show foliated ultracataclasite; lateral sinistral separations are in the range of  10 to 200 m with a relatively minor normal dip-slip component. In turn, third-order, east–west striking normal faults exhibit centimetric displacement. Oblique-slip (sinistral–normal) fault zones located at the southern termination of the Bolfin fault form a well-developed imbricate fan structure. They exhibit a relatively simple architecture of extensional and extensional-shear fractures bound by low displacement shear fractures. Kinematic analysis of fault slip data from mesoscopic faults within the duplex area, document that the NW-striking and the EW-striking faults accommodate transtension and extension, respectively. Examination of master and subsidiary faults of the duplex indicates a strong correlation between total displacement and internal fault structure. Faults started from arrays of en echelon extensional/extensional-shear fractures that then coalesced into throughgoing strike-slip faults. Further displacement leads to the formation of discrete bands of cataclasite and ultracataclasite that take up a significant part of the total displacement. We interpret that the duplex formed by progressive linkage of horsetail-like structures at the southern tip of the Bolfin fault that joined splay faults coming from the Jorgillo and Coloso faults. The geometry and kinematics of faults is compared with that observed in analog models to gain an insight into the kinematic processes leading to complex strike-slip fault zones in the upper crust.     

Modeling of Crack Initiation, Propagation and Coalescence in Uniaxial Compression

Summary ?Cracks that initiate from pre-existing discontinuities can link with other cracks or with other discontinuities and produce failure in a rock mass. The Displacement Discontinuity Method (DDM), FROCK, is used in this investigation to model experimental observations on pre-cracked specimens of gypsum. In these experiments two fractures, which were either both open or closed, were placed through the thickness of the specimens, and detailed observations of the cracking process were performed as the specimens were loaded in uniaxial compression. The following aspects are studied for both open and closed fractures: 1) crack initiation stress; 2) direction and propagation of the new cracks; 3) type of coalescence and stress at which it occurs. Modeling is done considering the actual size of the specimens. Relations between the direction of initiation for each type of crack, the orientation of the initial fractures, and the type and coalescence are established. In addition, comparisons between results from experiments and predictions from the model are presented. The numerical results are in agreement with the experiments.     

Dynamic evolution of large-scale two-dimensional fractures and ruptures using coagulation methods

We consider the dynamic behavior of a large-scale, two-dimensional fibril fracture field embedded in a sedimentary pile which is resting on a tectonically active crustal basement. Fractures are treated statistically as a dilute gas composed of parallel, stressed fractures. The salient physical processes are annihilation/coalescence of fractures through binary collisions and their precipitation, diffusion, and advection caused by their motions. The analysis uses techniques of coagulation theory to follow evolution of fractures as they develop from small-scale, elementary ruptures (fibrils) to large-scale objects. The purpose is to study size distribution and temporal variations of emerging fractures at the sedimentary surface with fibril fractures throughout the sedimentary pile. Analysis suggests that transport and in situ coalescence/annihilation of fibril fractures through sediments may be responsible for the size spectrum and temporal variations observed in surface fractures and ruptures. We find that smaller-scale fractures advected to the sedimentary surface have a time lag relative to larger-scale precipitated fractures—suggestive of an after-shock type of behavior. We also find that annihilation reactions (approach to hydrostatic stress and/or cementation) can be effective in reducing the mean size of emerging fractures. Simple estimates indicate that if the annihilation rate is about 5–10 times the coalescence rate, then the coalescence process is virtually unable to produce any larger-scale fractures than the original elementary ruptures (fibrils).     

断层相关裂隙的一种定量计算方法

利用平衡剖面及几何学原理,建立断层面脱空空间理论模型、断层破裂带裂隙空间的置换模型,推导出一个在2维剖面上计算断层相关裂隙空间的定量计算公式,并讨论了相关参数的地质含义及取值方法。结果表明,断层面与层面的夹角变化率是控制断层相关裂隙空间的主控因素。该计算方法为断层裂缝的预测及评价提供了一种全新的思路和方法。