Depositional environment of the Krol Group of the Nainital area and its impact on the stromatolites

Depositional environment of the Krol group varied temporally from subtidal in the Manora to intertidal in the Sleepy Hollow times. The conditions that succeeded were peritidal in the Ayarpatta and supratidal in the Narainnagar times. These conditions were the main controlling factors in the growth and development of the algal stromatolites. The Manora formation, due to subtidal conditions, and the Sleepy Hollow formation, due to detrital influx, are almost devoid of stromatolites. The carbonates of the Ayarpatta formation representing a peritidal complex possess columnar and oncolitic stromatolites, while the sediments of the Narainnagar formation characterized by supratidal features contain blistered, domal and crinkled-laminar forms. The types and sizes of stromatolites therefore are governed by the depositional conditions prevailing in the sedimentary basin.     

扬子克拉通北缘中元古界神农架群乱石沟组叠层石类型及其沉积学意义*

扬子克拉通北缘神农架地区中元古界神农架群叠层石十分发育。该群下部乱石沟组中叠层石类型丰富,根据形态可分为柱状、穹状、层状叠层石以及锥状、层柱状、包心菜状、墙状叠层石和叠层石丘等。研究区叠层石以中小型为主,少数为大型和巨型;多数无壁,部分具单层壁;对称性和继承性由好到一般,部分较差。研究表明,叠层石的形态和规模,与水动力条件、水体深度及陆源组分含量关系密切,其中层状叠层石主要发育于潮间带上部,柱状叠层石产于潮间带下部和浅潮下带,穹状叠层石出现在潮间带和潮下带,锥状叠层石多见于潮间带下部和潮下带,层柱状、锥柱状叠层石则集中于潮间带,叠层石丘位于潮间带和潮下带。依据各类型叠层石宏观和微观特征、垂向组合类型、沉积构造及沉积岩相相互关系,并结合碳、氧同位素测试结果,综合研究认为: 虽然叠层石的形成受生物和环境等多重因素影响,但生物因素主要影响叠层石的微观组构,水动力条件则控制叠层石的宏观形态类型,水体深度影响叠层石的规模;另外,生物繁盛、陆源物质供给少的环境更有利于叠层石发育。     

Middle Ordovician Bioturbation Structures from Southeastern Margin of Ordos Basin and Their Environmentary Interpretation

ＩＮＴＲＯＤＵＣＴＩＯＮＴｈｅｓｔｕｄｙａｒｅａｉｓｌｏｃａｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｓｏｕｔｈｅａｓｔｅｒｎｍａｒ ｇｉｎｏｆｔｈｅＯｒｄｏｓｂａｓｉｎａｎｄｌｉｅｓｉｎｔｈｅＦｕｐｉｎｇｚｏｎｅｏｆＳｈａａｎｘｉＰｒｏｖｉｎｃｅ ,Ｃｈｉｎａ .ＴｈｅｓｔｕｄｙｉｎｔｅｒｖａｌｉｓｗｉｔｈｉｎｔｈｅＢａｄｏｕＭｅｍｂｅｒｏｆＦｅｎｇｆｅｎｇＦｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｔｈｅＭｅｍｂｅｒ 1ｏｆＪｉｎｓｕｓｈａｎＦｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ ,ｗｈｉｃｈｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｅｄａｓｔｈｅＭｉｄｄｌｅＯｒｄｏｖｉｃ…     

Porosity distribution in cyclic dolomites of the Lower Qiulitag Group (Upper Cambrian) in northwestern Tarim Basin,China

Increasing interests in hydrocarbon resources at depths have drawn greater attentions to the deeply-buried carbonate reservoirs in the Tarim Basin in China. In this study, the cyclic dolomite rocks of Upper Cambrian Lower Qiulitag Group from four outcrop sections in northwestern Tarim Basin were selected to investigate and evaluate the petrophysical properties in relation to depositional facies and cyclicity. The Lower Qiulitag Group includes ten lithofacies, which were deposited in intermediate to shallow subtidal, restricted shallow subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal environments on a carbonate ramp system. These lithofacies are vertically stacked into repeated shallowing-upward, meter-scale cycles which are further grouped into six third-order depositional sequences (Sq1 to Sq6). There are variable types of pore spaces in the Lower Qiulitag Group dolomite rocks, including interparticle, intraparticle, and fenestral pores of primary origin, inter crystal, and vuggy pores of late diagenetic modification. The porosity in the dolomites is generally facies-selective as that the microbially-originated thrombolites and stromatolites generally yield a relatively high porosity. In contrast, the high-energy ooidal grainstones generally have very low porosity. In this case, the microbialite-based peritidal cycles and peritidal cycle-dominated highstand (or regressive) successions have relatively high volumes of pore spaces, although highly fluctuating (or vertical inhomogeneous). Accordingly, the grainstone-based subtidal cycles and subtidal cycle-dominated transgressive successions generally yield extremely low porosity. This scenario indicates that porosity development and preservation in the thick dolomite successions are primarily controlled by depositional facies which were influenced by sea-level fluctuations of different orders and later diagenetic overprinting.     

Stromatolitic associations and their palaeo-environmental significance: A re-appraisal of a lower proterozoic locality from the northern cape province,South Africa

A basal section of the Lower Proterozoic Transvaal Dolomite from the northern Cape has been re-examined. Numerous associations of stromatolites and other structures have been distinguished in it. Forms of domical stromatolite dominate the structures, but columns, and associations built around spheroidal forms, are also represented. This material accumulated in a telescoped range of environments through the intertidal to a high-energy agitated zone and out into the subtidal.Columnar forms and flat domes from the intertidal zone appear to be remarkably similar to features described from Hamelin Pool at Shark Bay, Western Australia. The subtidal elongate domes and mounds increase in size with depth to reach dimensions of 40 by 10 m, heights of 13 m and relief of 2.5 m. Minor structures on these subtidal forms reflect decreasing energy outwards; included within them are columnar forms in the shallow subtidal zone.It is suggested that deposition within an epeiric sea was away from a headland on a relatively steeply shelving floor affected by currents at right angles to the shore. There are indications that an arid to semi-arid climate existed at that time.     

天津蓟县中元古界雾迷山组微指状叠层石及其对1250 Ma±叠层石衰减事件的响应

天津蓟县中元古界雾迷山组是一套厚度超过3 000 m的叠层石碳酸盐岩沉积序列,在该序列中潮下相叠层石生物层、凝块石生物丘与潮坪相泥晶白云岩、泻湖相白云质泥页岩一起构成若干个环潮坪型米级旋回--“雾迷山旋回层”。在雾迷山组下部发育微指状叠层石,并被古生物学家定义为“Pseudogymnosolen mopanyuensis-Scuphus-Yangzhuang columnaris”组合,即假裸枝叠层石科叠层石,沉积学家将其解释为元古代文石（灰华）海底沉淀物所构成的叠层石,代表从太古代海底结壳状文石沉淀物叠层石到新元古代碎屑结构相、富泥碳酸盐叠层石过渡时期的特殊产物。因此,雾迷山组巨厚的叠层石碳酸盐岩沉积序列,记录了元古代文石灰华海底沉淀物所构成的特殊的叠层石大规模消亡的层位,为研究前寒武纪以叠层石为代表的微生物碳酸盐岩所经历的漫长而复杂的地质历史演变提供了宝贵的材料。     

辽宁兴城夹山地区中元古界团山子组叠层石的发现及其地层学意义

辽宁省兴城市夹山地区中元古界长城系白云岩中首次发现叠层石,其产出层位为前人在这一地区划分的"常州沟组"顶部,自下而上为Stratifera sp.层叠层石(未定种),Cryptozoon sp.卷心菜叠层石(未定种),Eucapsiphora sp.叠球藻叠层石(未定种)。该组合以及邻区葫芦岛等地团山子组中的叠层石类型均属于燕山、太行地区团山子组叠层石组合带分子。上述叠层石的发现为夹山地区划分出团山子组提供了重要的生物地层学证据。根据岩石组合特征、叠层石形态垂向分布规律及其与古环境演化的关系分析,认为兴城地区团山子组沉积环境演化为海退沉积序列(浅滩到潮间、潮上带)到海侵沉积序列(潮间、潮上带到潮间、潮下带)。     

华北地台马沟剖面寒武系苗岭统微生物岩的组构特征、沉积环境和地质意义

华北地台大约从寒武纪第二世的晚期开始接受沉积,超覆在前寒武-寒武纪“巨型不整合面”之上,形成了一套二级海侵背景下的厚层陆表海硅质碎屑岩-碳酸盐岩混积序列,这套特别的地层序列在苗岭统和芙蓉统中包含了多种多样的微生物岩。研究区苗岭统出露较为完整,包括毛庄组、徐庄组、张夏组和崮山组,分别构成4个三级层序即SQ1至SQ4。在SQ2的高位体系域和强迫型海退体系域中,以及SQ3的高位体系域中发育了较为特别的由微生物岩构成的生物层、生物丘或生物丘复合体。微生物岩的种类和沉积环境包括形成于正常浪基面以下、潮下带低能环境的类型I迷宫状微生物岩,潮下带上部至潮间带中-高能环境的类型II和类型III迷宫状微生物岩,风暴浪基面之上浅水环境中的均一石,潮间带短柱状叠层石和潮上带近水平缓波状叠层石,以及高能鲕粒滩中的小型叠层石生物丘。通常认为寒武系苗岭统的微生物岩（礁）以凝块石和树形石为特征,而本次研究在苗岭统中发现了迷宫状微生物岩和均一石,补充丰富了对寒武系微生物岩（礁）多样化和复杂化构成的认识。无论是在迷宫状微生物岩、均一石中,还是叠层石中,都见到了一种或多种钙化蓝细菌（鞘）化石,如葛万菌（Girvanella）、附枝菌（Epithyton）和基座菌（Hedstroemia）等,以及大量的钙化微生物席残余物,表明这些微生物岩是由蓝细菌所主导的微生物席的复杂的钙化作用产物,而大量呈弥散状分布的黄铁矿晶体或颗粒则表明硫酸盐还原菌等非光合作用细菌和异养细菌可能在促进碳酸盐沉淀过程中扮演了重要角色。     

Lower Carboniferous peritidal carbonates and associated evaporites adjacent to the Leinster Massif,southeast Irish Midlands

Analysis of a 275 m‐thick section in the Milford Borehole, GSI‐91‐25, from County Carlow, Ireland, has revealed an unusual sequence of shallow subtidal, peritidal and sabkha facies in rocks of mid?‐late Chadian to late Holkerian (Viséan, Lower Carboniferous) age. Sedimentation occurred on an inner ramp setting, adjacent to the Leinster Massif. The lower part of the sequence (late Chadian age) above the basal subtidal bioclastic unit is dominated by oolite sand facies associations. These include a lower regressive dolomitized, oolitic peloidal mobile shoal, and an upper, probably transgressive, backshoal oolite sand. A 68 m‐thick, well‐developed peritidal sequence is present between the oolitic intervals. These rocks consist of alternating stromatolitic fenestral mudstone, dolomite and organic shale, with evaporite pseudomorphs and subaerial exposure horizons containing pedogenic features. In the succeeding Arundian–Holkerian strata, transgressive–regressive carbonate units are recognized. These comprise high‐energy, backshoal subtidal cycles of argillaceous skeletal packstones, bioclastic grainstones with minor oolites and algal wackestones to grainstones and infrequent algal stromatolite horizons. The study recognizes for the first time the peritidal and sabkha deposits in Chadian rocks adjacent to the Leinster Massif in the eastern Irish Midlands. These strata appear to be coeval with similar evaporite‐bearing rocks in County Wexford that are developed on the southern margin of this landmass, and similar depositional facies exist further to the east in the South Wales Platform, south of St. George's Land, and in Belgium, south of the Brabant Massif. The presence of evaporites in the peritidal facies suggests that dense brines may have formed adjacent to the Leinster Massif. These fluids may have been involved in regional dolomitization of Chadian and possibly underlying Courceyan strata. They may also have been a source of high salinity fluids associated with nearby base‐metal sulphide deposits. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

柴西南翼山地区藻灰岩层储层特征及成因分析①

对南翼山藻灰岩岩层储层特征及成因进行了系统研究。结果表明，南翼山藻灰岩沉积水体环境相对浑浊，但藻类仍能生长；该区藻灰岩岩石组成及类型复杂，主要的藻灰岩岩石类型有包心菜状叠层石、藻礁、指状叠层石、水平波状叠层石等；其主要为滨岸斜坡上低能潮上环境至高能潮下环境形成的沉积体，在重力等因素的作用下产生滑动或滑塌形成的微生物成因的滑塌混积岩；岩层物性好于其它岩层；藻灰岩层的成因决定了该地区单个沉积体规模小、分散、层薄。     

广东省泥盆纪藻叠层石及其形成环境

一、引言自从Ginsburg(1955)及Logan等(1961,1964)研究了巴哈马、佛罗里达和西澳大利亚的现代藻叠层石以来,已经建立了用藻叠层石的形态和构造来解释现代或古代海洋沉积环境的基础。在我国,报道前寒武纪叠层石的文章较多,上古生代则不多见。作者自1980年以来对广东泥盆纪碳酸盐沉积中的藻叠层石做了一些研究,现根据所得资料进行报道。     

天津蓟县中元古界雾迷山组微指状叠层石及其对1250 Ma±叠层石衰减事件的响应

天津蓟县中元古界雾迷山组是一套厚度超过3000,m的叠层石碳酸盐岩沉积序列,在该序列中潮下相叠层石生物层、凝块石生物丘与潮坪相泥晶白云岩、潟湖相白云质泥页岩一起构成若干个环潮坪型米级旋回——"雾迷山旋回层"。在雾迷山组下部发育微指状叠层石,并被古生物学家定义为"Pseudogymnosolen mo-panyuensis-Scuphus-Yangzhuang columnaris"组合,即假裸枝叠层石科叠层石,沉积学家将其解释为元古代文石(灰华)海底沉淀物所构成的叠层石,代表从太古代海底结壳状文石沉淀物组成的叠层石到新元古代碎屑结构相的泥晶碳酸盐岩叠层石过渡时期的特殊产物。因此,雾迷山组巨厚的叠层石碳酸盐岩沉积序列,记录了元古代文石(灰华)海底沉淀物所构成的特殊的叠层石大规模消亡的层位,为研究前寒武纪以叠层石为代表的微生物碳酸盐岩所经历的漫长而复杂的地质历史演变提供了宝贵的材料。     

Variations in Neoarchean microbialite morphologies: clues to controls on microbialite morphologies through time

The Neoarchean Carawine Formation, Hamersley Group, Western Australia is a carbonate ramp that preserves diverse microbial structures which are characteristic of specific depositional environments. These distinctive structures are distributed in five shallow subtidal and two deeper‐water facies in the Oakover area of the Carawine Formation. The shallow subtidal facies are composed of biohermal and bedded stromatolites, centimetre‐scale ridge‐shaped microbialites and wavy‐laminated microbialites. The deeper‐water facies are composed of fenestrate microbialites, planar laminated dolostone and dolostone with rolled‐up microbial laminae. Microbialites in the Carawine Formation lie within a continuum of Archean to Proterozoic microbial facies. Some shallow‐water microbial facies in the Carawine Formation are similar to Proterozoic facies, such as large bioherms internally composed of a variety of stromatolite morphologies. In contrast, fenestrate microbialites grew in quiet subtidal environments and are common in Archean rocks but have not been documented in similar Proterozoic environments. The similarity of shallow‐water facies across the Archean–Proterozoic transition, before and after the oxidation of the atmosphere and surface oceans, indicates that stromatolite growth in shallow subtidal environments was not strongly affected by the chemical changes associated with oxidation of the oceans or by biological responses to those chemical changes. Rather, stromatolite morphology was controlled mostly by the physical environment and the corresponding biological responses to that environment. In contrast, the absence of fenestrate microbialites from Proterozoic deep subtidal environments suggests that the morphology of deep subtidal microbial structures was influenced by chemical or biological changes that occurred in association with oxidation of the surface oceans.     

Carbonate platform growth and cyclicity at a terminal Proterozoic passive margin, Infra Krol Formation and Krol Group, Lesser Himalaya, India

Abstract The Infra Krol Formation and overlying Krol Group constitute a thick (< 2 km), carbonate-rich succession of terminal Proterozoic age that crops out in a series of doubly plunging synclines in the Lesser Himalaya of northern India. The rocks include 18 carbonate and siliciclastic facies, which are grouped into eight facies associations: (1) deep subtidal; (2) shallow subtidal; (3) sand shoal; (4) peritidal carbonate complex; (5) lagoonal; (6) peritidal siliciclastic–carbonate; (7) incised valley fill; and (8) karstic fill. The stromatolite-rich, peritidal complex appears to have occupied a location seaward of a broad lagoon, an arrangement reminiscent of many Phanerozoic and Proterozoic platforms. Growth of this complex was accretionary to progradational, in response to changes in siliciclastic influx from the south-eastern side of the lagoon. Metre-scale cycles tend to be laterally discontinuous, and are interpreted as mainly autogenic. Variations in the number of both sets of cycles and component metre-scale cycles across the platform may result from differential subsidence of the interpreted passive margin. Apparently non-cyclic intervals with shallow-water features may indicate facies migration that was limited compared with the dimensions of facies belts. Correlation of these facies associations in a sequence stratigraphic framework suggests that the Infra Krol Formation and Krol Group represent a north- to north-west-facing platform with a morphology that evolved from a siliciclastic ramp, to carbonate ramp, to peritidal rimmed shelf and, finally, to open shelf. This interpretation differs significantly from the published scheme of a basin centred on the Lesser Himalaya, with virtually the entire Infra Krol–Krol succession representing sedimentation in a persistent tidal-flat environment. This study provides a detailed Neoproterozoic depositional history of northern India from rift basin to passive margin, and predicts that genetically related Neoproterozoic deposits, if they are present in the High Himalaya, are composed mainly of slope/basinal facies characterized by fine-grained siliciclastic and detrital carbonate rocks, lithologically different from those of the Lesser Himalaya.     

The St George Group (Lower Ordovician) of western Newfoundland: tidal flat island model for carbonate sedimentation in shallow epeiric seas

The St George Group consists of peritidal carbonate rocks deposited on the continental shelf of North America bordering the ancient Iapetus Ocean. These Lower Ordovician rocks are similar to other lower Palaeozoic limestones and dolostones that accumulated in epeiric seas and veneer cratonic areas worldwide. A wide variety of facies in the St George is grouped into seven lithotopes, interpreted to represent supratidal, intertidal and shallow, high- and low-energy subtidal environments. Rapid lateral facies changes can be observed in some field exposures, and demonstrated by correlation of closely spaced sections. The stratigraphic array of these lithotopes, although too irregular to be simplified into shallowing-upward cycles, suggests that they were deposited as small tidal flat islands and banks. Shallow subtidal areas around islands generated sediment and permitted tidal exchange. Tidal flat islands were somewhat variable in character at any one time, and evolved with changing regional hydrographic conditions. The St George rocks suggest an alternative theory of carbonate sedimentation in large, shallow epeiric seas, namely as small islands and banks built by processes that operated in a tidal regime. Furthermore, this island model provides a framework for a mechanism of cyclic carbonate sedimentation, by which small-scale, peritidal cycles represent tidal flat islands that accreted vertically and migrated laterally as local sediment supply from neighbouring subtidal areas waxed and waned during relatively constant subsidence.     

微生物席成因构造形态组合的古环境意义: 以华北南缘中-新元古代为例

微生物席成因构造(microbially induced sedimentary structures, MISS)是由微生物与沉积物相互作用形成的生物-沉积构造, 可作为早期微生物群活动的重要标识, 但对其指示古环境的研究尚显不足.华北地台南部中-新元古代汝阳群(Pt₂)和洛峪群(Pt₃)以近岸浅水陆源碎屑沉积为主, 其中发育大量MISS, 包括多向波痕、微生物席稳化波痕、微生物席碎片、微生物席平滑波痕、多种微生物席脱水形成的砂裂及不规则网状生长脊等.研究表明, 在潮坪环境中MISS最为发育.地势差异对水动力、基底暴露、水分补给和沉积条件等环境因素具有显著控制作用, 影响微生物席的发育与结构, 因此, MISS的形态组合特征能够反映沉积微相变化.研究发现, 在潮上带以微生物席脱水形成的砂裂构造为主, 潮间带上部以破坏-改造型构造为主, 潮间带下部-潮下带一般少见原位MISS, 但可见再沉积微生物席碎片.据潮间带下部至潮上带上部MISS产出类型及其形态组合分析, 识别了4个MISS形态组合带, MISS形态组合由潮间带下部至潮上带上部的变化反映了古地形由低到高的明显变化.      

苏皖辽地区新元古代微亮晶构造碳酸盐岩的沉积岩相与环境约束

国内外元古代碳酸盐岩中常见席状、透镜状、脉状和块状等形态的微亮晶碳酸盐岩。微亮晶体宏观、微观边界清晰,内部充填均一等粒结构的方解石微亮晶。宿主岩相以含泥质或粉砂质的细砂屑、粉泥屑灰岩为主,经常与风暴岩共生。微亮晶构造碳酸盐岩发育在缓坡型台地,沉积层序中常见潮汐流、风暴流侵蚀-充填和浪成交错层理与递变层理。微亮晶构造碳酸盐岩发育严格受沉积环境和岩相约束,形成于 (内缓坡深部-中缓坡浅部 )潮下带和环潮坪,风暴浪基面是其发育的最大深度。垂向序列由高频潮下带和环潮坪微层序加积而成,单个微层序顶部通常为环潮坪为纹层状含铁质有机质泥屑碳酸盐岩披盖层,是一个向上沉积动力减弱、沉积物变细和水体变浅的沉积旋回。     

Comparative study of two relatives,MISS and Stromatolites: example from the Proterozoic Kunihar Formation,Simla Group,Lesser Himalaya

Comparison of microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) and stromatolitic bearing horizons from the Proterozoic Kunihar Formation, Simla Group, Lesser Himalaya, has been scrutinised to understand the formative processes and controls on MISS and stromatolites in the context of sedimentary facies and response to sea level fluctuations. MISS structures recorded are wrinkle structures, Kinneyia ripples, load casts, domal structures, sand chips, palimpsest and patchy ripples with limited desiccation cracks. Stromatolitic morphotypes recorded are solitary, branching, wavy and domal forms of stromatolites associated with ooids, peloids and fenestral laminae. MISS structures flourished within tidal flats to shallow intertidal while stromatolites mushroomed in environments ranging from tidal to deep subtidal. MISS structures were favoured by resistant substratum, low energy conditions, consistent water supply and low terrigenous input. Stromatolites boomed when the volume of carbonate accumulation exceeded siliciclastic deposition. Fluctuating environmental conditions and sediment budget controlled morphology of stromatolites. Owing to limited siliciclastic input during deposition of dolomudstones (characterizes transgressive systems tract), microbial growth was enhanced. Calcareous shales were deposited over dolomudstones which marks the maximum flooding surface (MFS) indicating the culmination of transgression. Deposition of storm-dominated sandstone-siltstone (FA1), wave-rippled sandstones (FA2), tide-dominated sandstones (FA3), heteroliths (FA4), wackestone-packestone (FA6), boundstone (FA7) and ooid-peloid grainstone (FA8) on top of the MFS reflects initiation of highstand systems tract (HST) which is mainly characterized by stromatolitic horizons, alternation of carbonates and siliciclastics with flourishing microbial activity. Eventually, increased sedimentation in upper part of Kunihar Formation marks late stage of regression.     

Reefs in the Early Paleozoic Taebaek Group, Korea: A Review

Various early Paleozoic (Cambrian Series 3–Middle Ordovician) reefs are found in the Taebaek Group, eastern Korea, located in the eastern margin of the Sino-Korean Block. They occur in every carbonate-dominant lithostratigraphic unit of the group, but their morphology and composition differ markedly. The Daegi Formation (middle Cambrian: Cambrian Series 3) contains siliceous sponge-Epiphyton reefs formed in a shallow subtidal environment, which is one of the earliest metazoan-bearing microbial reefs after the archaeocyath extinction. The Hwajeol Formation (upper Cambrian: Furongian) encloses sporadic dendrolites consisting of Angulocellularia, which developed in a relatively deep subtidal environment, representing a rare deeper water example. The onset of the Ordovician radiation resulted in the formation of microbialite–Archaeoscyphia–calathiid patch reefs in shallow subtidal deposits of the Lower Ordovician Dumugol Formation. Subsequent late Early Ordovician relative sea-level fall established extensive peritidal environments, forming microbial mats and stromatolites of the Lower–Middle Ordovician Makgol Formation. Ensuing Ordovician radiation resulted in one of the earliest metazoan skeletal reefs of the Middle Ordovician Duwibong Formation, constructed by stromatoporoid Cystostroma and bryozoan Nicholsonella, and developed around shallow shoals. These reefs reflect ongoing evolution and sea-level change during the early Paleozoic, and exemplify a rare glimpse of peri-Gondwanan records of reef evolution, which warrant detailed investigations and comparison with their counterparts in other regions.