Earthquake-induced Soft-sediment Deformation Structures in the Dengfeng Area, Henan Province, China: Constraints on Qinling Tectonic Evolution during the Early Cambrian

Soft-sediment deformation structures are abundant in the Cambrian Zhushadong and Mantou formations of the Dengfeng area, Henan Province, China. Soft-sediment deformation structures of the Zhushadong Formation consist of fluidized deformation, synsedimentary faults, seismo-folds and plastic deformation; the Mantou Formation is dominated by small-scale horst faults, intruded dikes, fluidized veins, and seismo-cracks. These structures are demonstrated to be earthquake-related by analysis of trigger mechanisms, and may indicate the activity of the Qinling tectonic belt during the early Cambrian. Furthermore, the assemblages of soft-sediment deformation structures altered with time: large-scale, intense deformation in the Zhushadong Formation alters to small-scale, weak deformation in the Mantou Formation. This striking feature may have been caused by changes in hypocentral depth from deep-focus to shallow-focus earthquakes, indicating that the Qinling tectonic belt developed from the subduction of the Shangdan Ocean to the extension of the Erlangping back-arc basin. This study suggests that soft-sediment deformation structures can be used to reveal the activity of a tectonic belt, and, more importantly, changes in deformation assemblages can track the evolution of a tectonic belt.     

滦平盆地下白垩统西瓜园组震积软沉积变形

为完善对滦平盆地西瓜园组地震引发的软沉积变形构造的认识,综合利用野外观测与室内分析相结合、宏观沉积体系与微观软沉积变形构造等分析相结合的方法,对研究区震积成因的软沉积变形构造进行了研究.结果表明,在盆内主、次控盆断层夹角位置的两处剖面中,可见枕状构造、液化砂岩脉、液化砂岩侵位、液化角砾岩、液化卷曲变形、砂岩滴落体、火焰构造、球枕构造、枕状层、负荷构造和震积不整合的组合发育,且同一剖面具有垂向多次震积作用的连续发育特点,这些震积作用均被识别在扇三角洲前缘相带内.根据这些软沉积变形发育的位置、彼此组合伴生、连续发育和区域分布的特点,可识别出连续2次大地震的发生.      

Soft-sediment Deformation Structures Related to Earthquake from the Devonian of the Eastern North Qilian Mts. and Its Tectonic Significance

Devonian in the North Qilian orogenic belt and Hexi Corridor developed terrestrial molasse of later stage of foreland basin caused by collision between the North China plate and Qaidam microplate. The foreland basin triggered a intense earthquake, and formed seismites and earthquake-related soft-sediment deformation. The soft-sediment deformation structures of Devonian in the eastern North Qilian Mts. consist of seismo-cracks, sandstone dykes, syn-depositional faults, microfolds (micro-corrugated lamination), fluidized veins, load casts, flame structures, pillow structures and brecciation. The seismo-cracks, syn-depositional faults and microfolds are cracks, faults and folds formed directly by oscillation of earthquake. The seismic dykes formed by sediment instilling into seismic cracks. Fluidized veins were made by instilling into the seismo-fissures of the fluidized sands. The load casts, flame structures and pillow structures were formed by sinking and instilling caused from oscillation of earthquake along the face between sandy and muddy beds. The brecciation resulted from the oscillation of earthquake and cracking of sedimentary layers. The seismites and soft-sediment deformations in Devonian triggered the earthquake related to tectonic activities during the orogeny and uplift of North Qilian Mts.     

Advances and Overview of the Study on Paleo-earthquake Events: A Review of Seismites

The distribution and formation mechanisms of typical identified seismites are analyzed based on various factors from plate tectonic positions, types of sedimentary basins and properties of seismogenic faults to focal mechanisms. Especially, structural styles, reserved positions, activity times, formation mechanisms and dynamics of soft-sediment deformation structures triggered by seismic activity are systematically analyzed. According to the genetic types of seismites, we propose 5 categories, including liquefied deformation, thixotropic deformation, hydroplastic deformation, superimposed gravity driving deformation and brittle deformation. Further, based on the main genetic types, composition of sediments and deformation styles, we draw up 35 secondary classifications. To determine paleo-seismic sequences in different times, activities of seismogenic faults, high-resolution tectonic events in one main tectonic movement and paleo-tectonic settings, and to understand the inducing mechanisms of paleo-earthquakes and ecologic environment evolution, researching on seismites are of great significance. Combing multiple approaches to identify the paleoearthquake records, simulating experiments on various soft-sediment deformation structures triggered by different magnitudes of shocking, dating precisely on paleo-seismic events, impacting on paleogeography and biological environment and on energy and resources domain are the frontiers of paleoseismic research.     

Soft-sediment deformation structures interpreted as seismites in the uppermost Aptian to lowermost Albian transgressive deposits of the Chihuahua basin (Mexico)

Several levels of soft-sediment deformation structures (s.-s.d.s.) cut by synsedimentary normal faults have been observed in the transition beds between the “Las Vigas” and “La Virgen” formations (Cretaceous) in the northeastern part of the Chihuahua basin in Mexico. These structures consisted of four kinds of motifs (floating breccias, flame-like structures, large pillow structures, and wavy structures). They are restricted to five “stratigraphic” levels (Σ1–Σ5) and surrounded by undeformed beds in fluvio-lacustrine and tidal deposits and can be traced over a distance of several hundred meters. This deformation is interpreted to have resulted from the combined effects of liquidization and shear stress in soft-sediments due to local earthquakes in the area which could have been generated during the rifting stage of the Chihuahua basin. New constraints placed on the age of the “Las Vigas” Formation (bracketed by Late Aptian charophytes at the bottom and colomiellids of late Aptian to earliest Albian age at the top) suggest that this synrift tectonism lasted at least until the end of the Aptian.     

塔里木盆地顺托果勒地区早中志留世震积岩——高分辨构造事件的记录

在塔里木盆地塔中隆起与满加尔坳陷结合部——顺托果勒地区的深钻井岩心中,发现了大量早中志留世软沉积变形构造。其中主要包括液化砂岩脉、液化角砾岩、触变底劈构造、触变楔、负载构造、球-枕构造和复合混插构造等。通过系统地观察软沉积变形构造的岩石组成、构造形貌及样式、垂向分布的循环性、横向分布的延展性、沉积环境及与古活动断裂的关系,确定其为震积岩。结合该区断裂早中志留世的发育特征,推测发震断裂主要可能是塔中隆起与满加尔坳陷结合部的北东向走滑逆冲断裂以及北西向剪切拉张断裂。在早志留世柯坪塔格组沉积时约4 Ma中最少发生了26次古地震事件(震级M5)。这些古地震记录不仅反映了研究区志留纪构造的活动性,也是弥补主构造运动中高频次构造事件脉动性、循环性的重要证据,为重建中古生代的古构造提供新的线索。     

Soft-sediment deformation structures from an ice-marginal storm–tide interactive system,Permo-Carboniferous Talchir Formation,Talchir Coalbasin,India

Permo-Carboniferous Talchir Formation, Talchir Coalbasin, India, records sedimentation during a phase of climatic amelioration in an ice-marginal storm-affected shelf. Evidences of subtidal processes are preserved only under thick mud drapes deposited during waning storm phases. Various soft-sediment deformation structures in some sandstone/siltstone–mudstone interbeds, like syn-sedimentary faults, deformed laminations, sand–silt flows, convolute laminations and various flame structures, suggest liquefaction and fluidization of the beds due to passage of syn-depositional seismic shocks. In the Late Paleozoic ice-marginal shelf, such earthquake tremors could be generated by crustal movements in response to glacioisostatic adjustments of the basin floor.     

河南南召盆地上三叠统太山庙组软沉积物变形构造及其古地理意义*

河南南召盆地上三叠统太山庙组中发现的软沉积物变形构造包括同沉积断层、液化均一层与泄水脉、底劈构造、塑性变形层、碎裂岩及大型负载构造。它们集中保存在太山庙组中段深湖环境中,以该层段为界,其下水体渐深,其上水体渐浅。多数软沉积物变形构造与浊流沉积砂体相伴生,也可保存在泥岩层中,其形成可能与浊流沉积过程相关,但古地震活动是主要的触发机制。软沉积物变形的类型包括液化变形、塑性变形和脆性变形,指示了高强度的古地震活动,记录了秦岭造山带印支期一次强烈的造山活动。造山带逆冲推覆作用造成南召盆地的抬升,代表了前陆盆地系统中的楔顶沉积。     

贺西地区板块构造分区及晚古生代盆地形成与演化

贺西地区以阿拉善陆块为主体,太古界裸露地表、花岗岩发育,在南北缝合带之间还有六条形成期早、演化时期长的深大断裂,对早古生代壳块分区,晚古生代盆地形成、分布起着控制和分割作用。晚古生代在前陆盆地率先接受了上泥盆统、下石炭统沉积;步入晚石炭世、沉积范围继续扩大至碰撞裂谷盆地后,又扩大到鄂尔多斯西缘并与华北海(陆表海)连为一体。进入海西旋回中晚期,受蒙兴海槽、秦祁海槽会聚、收缩、对接碰撞构造背景和构造运动的影响,使曾经是石炭纪南海北陆的古构造格架、古地理面貌,被全面海退后二叠纪的陆相沉积所代替。晚海西—早印支运动,使上古生界全面发生挤压变形,形成多种类型断裂、褶皱构造与圈闭,并受到了普遍的隆起剥蚀和缺失。晚印支期断裂活动,构造将晚古生代形成的两类盆地解体为八个断陷和五个隆起区,又使新的盆岭构造格局在此基础上形成、发育和演变。     

沧东凹陷始新统孔店组二段深水细粒沉积岩中的软沉积物变形构造*

湖相深水细粒沉积岩中的软沉积物变形构造主要发育在泥岩和泥晶碳酸盐岩为主的地层中,大部分因为发育规模小(镜下尺度),在岩心观察中很容易被忽略掉。本文以沧东凹陷G108-8井孔店组二段(孔二段)细粒沉积岩为研究对象,通过密集的镜下观察和精细岩心描述,识别出同沉积微断裂、液化岩脉、微褶皱变形、微重荷变形和杂乱变形等多种类型的软沉积物变形构造。研究区深水细粒沉积岩中的软沉积物变形构造总体表现为规模小、垂向无明显重力流砂体伴生、原地成因、沉积纹层发育等特点。从应力调节方式的角度考虑,可以将软沉积物变形构造的形成机制划分为上覆应力卸载、侧向应力挤压和层内应力释放等3种类型,不同的形成机制分别是对不同沉积环境变化的响应。通过湖相深水细粒沉积岩软沉积物变形构造的研究,可以恢复古沉积环境变化、预测重力流方位,对深水细粒沉积岩的油气勘探也具有一定的指导意义。     

新疆博格达地区早二叠世软沉积物变形构造:弧后碰撞前陆盆地地震记录

早二叠世下岌岌槽子群发育于博格达弧后碰撞前陆盆地缓坡带,为一套长石含量较高的陆源碎屑岩。古流向、沉积相带分布研究表明,当时的古坡向向南。岌岌槽子群中首次发现大量软沉积物变形构造,包括链环层理、水塑性褶皱、液化沙脉、沙侵蘑菇、碟状泄水构造、球枕构造、流化砾岩、底辟流化砾岩坨、滑混层、同沉积断层等,均是与地震驱动相适配的变形构造。这些变形构造常沿限定的岩层发育,上、下均为未变形的岩层,显示事件变形特征。大量滑混层褶皱枢纽和球枕构造轴面实测结果显示,它们既没有优势方位,其位态也与古坡向无关,进一步证实最有可能的驱动机制是地震。由于古地震活动直接与东天山造山活动密切相关,因此,研究软沉积物变形构造的时、空发育特征能够成为认识天山造山过程和相关盆地发育的一个新视角。     

新疆境内塔拉斯-费尔干纳断裂早侏罗世走滑的古地震证据

在野外考察过程中,于新疆乌恰地区早侏罗世康苏组沼泽相砂岩层中,发现并识别出软沉积物液化变形层,变形包括负载构造,球-枕构造及卷曲变形构造。通过模拟试验的对比研究认为,该软沉积物变形机制与液化作用有关,触发沉积物液化的动力是古地震,并且根据地震震级与液化最大震中距的关系,推测出造成早侏罗世软沉积物变形的里氏地震震级为6相似文献   

山东省灵山岛早白垩世软沉积物变形构造特征*

利用野外露头和镜下薄片等资料、地质统计等方法, 对山东省灵山岛老虎嘴剖面和船厂滑塌剖面软沉积物变形构造分布特征和形成期次进行了研究。船厂剖面发育滑塌褶皱、负载构造、阶梯断层、布丁构造、球—枕构造等典型的软沉积物变形构造;老虎嘴剖面发育层内褶皱、微阶梯断层、层内角砾岩等。根据形成时间、发育部位和形态特征, 将船厂剖面变形划分为滑塌前变形和滑塌中变形, 滑塌前变形又可以细分滑塌体下部变形和滑塌体内部变形。滑塌褶皱具有多级别、多尺度的特点;以厚岩层组成的滑塌褶皱为主, 尺寸为米级;岩层内部纹层形成的次级褶皱为辅, 尺寸为毫米级。滑塌过程中岩层不同部位应力不同, 伴生其他变形构造, 如拉张形成的布丁构造和挤压形成剪切褶皱等。滑塌前已经形成的负载构造等在滑塌过程中保持原来形态, 不因地层变形而变形。这些古地震触发形成的软沉积变形构造证明灵山岛在早白垩世古地震活动频繁。     

Environmental geochemistry of Damodar River basin, east coast of India

 Water and bed sediment samples collected from the Damodar River and its tributaries were analysed to study elemental chemistry and suspended load characteristics of the river basin. Na and Ca are the dominant cations and HCO₃ is the dominant anion. The water chemistry of the Damodar River basin strongly reflects the dominance of continental weathering aided by atmospheric and anthropogenic activities in the catchment area. High concentrations of SO₄ and PO₄ at some sites indicate the mining and anthropogenic impact on water quality. The high concentration of dissolved silica, relatively high (Na+K)/TZ⁺ ratio (0.2–0.4) and low equivalent ratio of (Ca+Mg)/(Na+K) indicate that dissolved ions contribute significantly to the weathering of aluminosilicate minerals of crystalline rocks. The seasonal data show a minimum ionic concentration in the monsoon season, reflecting the influence of atmospheric precipitation on total dissolved solids contents. The suspended sediments show a positive correlation with discharge and both discharge and suspended load reach their maximum value during the monsoon season. Kaolinite is the mineral that is possibly in equilibrium with the water. This implies that the chemistry of the Damodar River water favours kaolinite formation. The concentration of heavy metals in the finer size fraction (<37 μ m) is significantly higher than the bulk composition. The geoaccumulation index values calculated for Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni and Cr are well below zero, suggesting that there is no pollution from these metals in Damodar River sediments. Received: 21 January 1998 · Accepted: 4 May 1998     

Curved structures and interference fold patterns associated with lateral ramps in the Eastern Cordillera, Central Andes of Argentina

The conspicuous curved structures located at the eastern front of the Eastern Cordillera between 25° and 26° south latitude is coincident with the salient recognized as the El Crestón arc. Major oblique strike-slip faults associated with these strongly curved structures were interpreted as lateral ramps of an eastward displaced thrust sheet. The displacement along these oblique lateral ramps generated the local N–S stress components responsible for the complex hanging wall deformation. Accompanying each lateral ramp, there are two belts of strong oblique fault and folding: the upper Juramento River valley area and El Brete area.On both margins of the Juramento River upper valley, there is extensive map-scale evidence of complex deformation above an oblique ramp. The N–S striking folds originated during Pliocene Andean orogeny were subsequently or simultaneously folded by E–W oriented folds. The lateral ramps delimiting the thrust sheet coincident with the El Crestón arc salient are strike-slip faults emplaced in the abrupt transitions between thick strata forming the salient and thin strata outside of it. El Crestón arc is a salient related to the pre-deformational Cretaceous rift geometry, which developed over a portion of this basin (Metán depocenter) that was initially thicker. The displacement along the northern lateral ramp is sinistral, whereas it is dextral in the southern ramp. The southern end of the Eastern Cordillera of Argentina shows a particular structure reflecting a pronounced along strike variations related to the pre-deformational sedimentary thickness of the Cretaceous basin.     

新元古代沂沭海峡地震引发的软沉积物变形及其微量元素信息*

新元古代沂沭海峡位于郯庐断裂带昌邑—大店断层西侧宽60~90,km、长300,km的区域内,其分布范围基本与郯庐断裂带中段一致。新元古代,该海峡盆地先后沉积了青白口系、南华系及震旦系的滨—浅海相陆源碎屑、泥质及碳酸盐沉积物,其岩石地层称之为土门群。本次研究从该海峡盆地土门群佟家庄组(由石英砂岩、泥灰岩和页岩组成,属南华系)、浮来山组(由细—粉砂岩夹页岩组成,属震旦系)及石旺庄组(主要由碳酸盐岩组成,下部夹页岩,属震旦系)中鉴别出了一系列地震触动软沉积物形成的变形构造,包括液化砂墙和砂脉、负载构造、火焰构造、球枕构造、软布丁构造、底辟构造、滑塌褶曲和同沉积断层等。它们是地震事件的记录——震积岩。新元古代中晚期(约800—600,Ma)沂沭海峡盆地拉张裂陷是它们形成的动力机制。根据石旺庄组中的微亮晶方解石脉与地震成因的变形构造(如负载、火焰、软布丁及同沉积断层等)共(伴)生的事实,并结合模拟地震试验结果分析,认为微亮晶方解石脉很可能是地震引发的饱和灰泥(方解石微粒)液化脉。微量化学元素分析结果表明,这些震积岩中的w(La)/w(Sc)和 w(La)/w(Th)值高于上地壳平均值和正常沉积层,而w(Th)/w(Sc)值则较低,深源微量元素Ni和Cr的含量也高于上地壳平均值及正常沉积层。这些微量元素特征是当时的盆地基底不稳定、快速沉积且伴有深部物质元素混入的反映,强地震很可能是快速沉积和促进深源物质混入的主要动力。土门群中发育的一系列地震引起的软沉积物变形(震积岩),再次证明了古郯庐断裂带的存在,由它们记录的地震事件也是晋宁运动乃至Rodinia超大陆的裂解的响应。     

Similarity of palaeocurrent pattern of Lower Gondwana formations of the Talchir and the Ong-river basins of Orissa, India – An indication of dismemberment of a major Gondwana basin

In peninsular India, Gondwana strata are disposed linearly as strings of isolated basins conforming to the trend of the present day Koel–Damodar, Son–Mahanadi and Prahnita–Godavari river valleys. There are seven exposed and one concealed Gondwana basins/outliers in Orissa belonging to the Son–Mahanadi valley system. The present study is concerned with the consanguinity of the Talchir and Ong-river basins of Orissa. Similarity and dissimilarity of palaeocurrent population in these two basins were taken into consideration to test the consanguinity of the basins under consideration. Statistical analysis suggests that the sampled palaeocurrent data of the same formation belong to the same population when considered for both basins. In geologic terms, the basin parameters were identical when considered for either the Talchir or the Karharbari Formation that proves the consanguinity of both the basins and the possible existence of a master basin that encompassed other sister Gondwana basins in Orissa.     

从西宁盆地新生代变形探讨青藏高原东北缘的变形特征

位于青藏高原东北缘的西宁盆地在新生代期间的变形具有明显的阶段性,新生代早期该盆地顺时针的转动在西宁盆地中的基底中产生或复活了一些北北西向的左行走滑断裂。晚期（中新世以来）,由于盆地边缘断裂持续强烈活动并伴随着一定的顺时针旋转,在盆地中形成一系列切割盆地基底的北北东向和北东向次级断裂,盆地中不同方向次级断裂不同时间的发育与边界左行斜向剪切造成的变形类似。同时盆地中薄皮与厚皮构造共同发育为特征,不仅盆地盖层发生了一定程度的褶皱变形,而且沿着切割盆地内部的断裂,往往基底被抬升至地表,形成比较明显的基底卷入型褶皱。西宁盆地因此被分割,形成了一系列更小的次级盆地。而青藏高原东北部新生代变形同样具有以上特征,斜向挤压是该地区变形的重要方式,正是由于长期的斜向挤压,造成了盆地内部与边界之间的应变分配,盆地内部基底隆起,并逐渐分割原先的大盆地。而热水—日月山断裂以及温泉断裂发育在海原断裂与昆仑山断裂之间的阶区,它们的活动和发育与边缘大型走滑断裂有重要的联系,同时也是压剪作用的重要特征之一。     

Origin and significance of soft-sediment deformation in the Old Red Sandstone of central South Wales,UK

Vertically oriented water-escape cusps are the most common type of soft-sediment deformation structure in sandstone-rich intervals of the fluvial Brownstones and Senni Formations (Cosheston Subgroup, Daugleddau Group) of the Lower Old Red Sandstone in the central Brecon Beacons and eastern Black Mountains, South Wales. The structures are widely distributed and occur at several stratigraphical levels. They can be divided into two styles. (1) Small-scale (height less than a single bed), isolated water-escape cusps formed when loosely packed sediment deposited rapidly in flood events liquefied in advance of subsequent flood events or pulses, causing localised fluidization due to the escape of excess pore water. Inclined cusps higher in some beds confirm the relationship of this deformation style to active flood events. (2) Horizons of larger-scale (occupying the entire bed thickness), laterally continuous water-escape cusps and fold trains can be traced for hundreds of metres to kilometres and result from widespread liquefaction in response to earthquakes. A lack of overturning indicates that their formation did not coincide with active flow conditions. Further detailed mapping is needed to clarify the continuity and extent of such structures and their relationship to faults that may have been active during sedimentation. The occurrence of triggers capable of causing liquefaction in granular materials provides a greater control on the occurrence of soft-sediment deformation than do lithological controls such as grain size or interbedding of sandstone and mudstone. The findings are broadly consistent with interpretations of soft-sediment deformation in the Cosheston Subgroup in Pembrokeshire, SW Wales.     

华北板块南缘中段中上三叠统软沉积变形构造的发现及其地质意义

豫西地区中上三叠统主要出露在济源、义马、伊川和南召一带。印支期秦岭造山运动控制和影响着邻区中上三叠统盆地属性和沉积地层展布。通过观察研究区野外露头剖面,发现中上三叠统发育一系列典型的软沉积变形构造,包括液化底辟、枕状构造、液化柱、液化卷曲变形、负载、球-枕、火焰状构造、液化角砾岩。这些软沉积变形在垂向上表现出明显的复现性,在侧向上表现为沿地层连续展布,表明该时期研究区内地层受到频繁强烈的地震影响。通过对这些软沉积现象的识别和形成机制解释,判定其触发因素为秦岭造山过程中伴生的地震。区内地层中震积岩的存在即是对秦岭造山过程中构造活动的响应。