山东灵山岛早白垩世复理石软沉积物变形期次解析

前人对软沉积物变形期次研究多数集中于触发变形的地震事件的周期,而对滑塌体内部软沉积物变形期次研究较少。山东灵山岛早白垩世复理石形成于残余盆地背景,且由于地震频发导致滑塌沉积广泛发育。滑塌沉积层中发育有丰富的软沉积物变形构造,如：同沉积滑塌褶皱、底模构造、剖面X形共轭逆断层、同沉积布丁构造、砂岩层断块及变形团块、微型地垒—地堑组合和叠瓦状倒转紧闭褶皱等。不同类型和不同部位的软沉积物变形构造显示出发育期次不同的特征。本文以灵山岛修船厂附近滑塌沉积层为例,分析软沉积物变形构造的变形机制,并将其发育期次大致分为滑塌前、滑塌中和滑塌后三个阶段。只有部分滑塌中的软沉积物变形构造具有滑塌指向意义,而滑塌前的变形构造不能用来判别滑塌体的搬运方向。     

灵山岛早白垩世软沉积物变形构造触发机制及其古环境意义探讨

灵山岛早白垩灵山岛组发育丰富的软沉积物变形构造。野外踏勘船厂、灯塔和千层崖三个剖面,根据沉积外观可分为变形层段和非变形层段两个部分。软沉积物变形构造在变形层段和非变形层段均有发育。其中,变形层段中可见褶皱变形、变形层理及大型负载构造。非变形层段可见火焰构造、同沉积布丁构造和同沉积微断层。研究发现,变形层段软沉积物变形构造尺度大(厚度可至十多米,长度可至数百米),侧向连续性好;非变形层段软沉积物变形构造尺度小(厚度仅几个厘米),侧向连续性差。且变形层段和未变形层段厚度统计数据表明,变形层段软沉积物变形构造与砂岩厚度无必然联系,而非变形层段软沉积物变形构造多出现在粒序砂岩层底部或旋回砂岩层变厚过程中。沉积环境表明,非变形层段和变形层段为一深水低角度斜坡沉积产物。软沉积物变形构造发育形态和数量受到斜坡地形的控制。结合沉积环境及沉积特征分析,认为变形层段软沉积物变形构造触发机制为地震,而非变形层段软沉积物变形构造触发机制为负载作用。锆石测年数据表明灵山岛组与上覆流纹岩沉积时间相近,因此地震活动可能与岩浆侵入或早期火山喷发活动相关。此外,汇总早白垩世重要事件,发现灵山岛组沉积、变冷事件、恐龙迁移、海平面变化和同位素偏移具有时间一致性,因此推断这些事件可能共同对应了早白垩世一次与火山活动相关的短期灾难性事件(如早白垩世缺氧事件)。     

青岛灵山岛晚中生代重力流沉积特征及环境分析

青岛灵山岛晚中生代发育一套重力流沉积,国内学者对其成因机制存在争议。笔者通过对造船厂、灯塔、千层崖、羊礁洞、老虎嘴、背来石等剖面的重点观察发现:灵山岛晚中生代地层出露以厚度不等的细粒砂泥岩与火山熔岩、火山碎屑岩为主,夹沉火山碎屑岩和侵入体,地层从老到新组合为一个水体变浅的水退序列。地层中发育不同类型、不同尺度、不同期次的软沉积变形构造,如软沉积变形褶皱、布丁构造、负载构造和火焰构造、软双重构造等。灵山岛晚中生代重力流沉积碎屑岩主要是块体搬运沉积(砂质滑塌和砂质碎屑流)和浊流沉积,向上过渡为陆相三角洲前缘沉积,其成因机制是物源供应充足的湖盆三角洲前缘在构造坡度或沉积坡度控制下,受地震和火山活动影响发生的块体搬运沉积和浊流沉积。初步研究认为沉积时的古斜坡方向为南东—北西方向。     

山东灵山岛滑塌体内部沉积及构造特征研究

青岛市灵山岛修船厂剖面下白垩统地层中发育良好的滑塌变形体。野外观察可见滑塌体岩性单元主要由厚层砂岩及砂页岩互层组成,其中厚层砂岩根据其沉积构造及成因机制可分为砂质碎屑流沉积及浊流沉积两类;砂页岩互层段砂岩层可见底模构造及粒序层理,为静水环境下远端浊流沉积。滑塌体内部构造主要可分为软褶皱变形、同生断层、透镜状砂质团块三种类型。其中,软褶皱变形根据岩性可分为砂岩软褶皱、砂页岩互层软褶皱及页岩软褶皱,随着变形强度增加,软褶皱枢纽逐渐平行于滑移方向,形成曲脊软褶皱或软鞘褶皱(soft sheath folds);同生断层出现在砂岩层中,根据力学性质分为正断层及逆断层,正断层为剪切拉伸所致,逆断层为软褶皱逆冲所致;透镜状砂质团块包括同沉积布丁构造和同沉积断块。根据滑塌体内部滑移面识别出三期滑塌,完整的滑塌体由底部拆离滑移面、下部厚层砂体、中部砂页岩互层及上部砂页岩互层未变形体组成,其组成特征及各部分接触关系反映了滑塌体中下部沿底部拆离滑移面发生滑塌变形,且于活动末期在相对静水条件下被上部砂页岩互层覆盖这一形成过程。根据滑塌体内部组成特征的有序性、相似性及滑塌体内部沉积构造特征,推测其触发机制可能为沉积物快速沉积所引发的重力滑塌成因。     

广西西大明山地区寒武系小内冲组滑塌构造的发现及其地质意义

在广西崇左市大新县西大明山地区的寒武系小内冲组第一段上部粉砂岩、泥岩地层中,新发现了一处具有典型的滑塌构造特征的软沉积物变形层。根据滑塌层软沉积物变形强弱特征,自下而上可以将滑塌层分为强褶皱逆冲断裂带、弱滑塌褶皱带、波状层理—劈理化带。其中强褶皱逆冲断裂带构造变形最强烈,主要表现为发育大量的同沉积滑塌褶皱及一系列层间小断裂,同时在同沉积褶皱内部还发育有球枕状构造、石香肠构造、透镜状构造等。根据滑塌体内部沉积构造特征,推测其触发机制可能为由地震所引发的滑塌运动;根据同沉积滑塌褶皱及同沉积逆冲断层产状特征判断,滑塌体是从SSE向NNW方向滑塌堆积而成,揭示当时的盆地古斜坡倾向NNW,沉积物的物源区位于SSE侧。     

山东省灵山岛下白垩统浊积岩中与滑塌作用相关的软沉积物变形构造

灵山岛上出露的软沉积物变形构造其成因具有多样性,而灯塔剖面底部滑塌层内的变形构造的触发因素尚不明确.结合野外观察和极射赤平投影方法,研究了滑塌层和内部变形构造的形成过程、触发机制和地质意义,结果表明:灯塔剖面主要由浊积岩沉积序列组成.滑塌层夹在未变形层之间,由地震触发形成,内部发育4个滑脱面,将滑塌层划分为5个变形单元,缩短率和变形程度各不相同.软沉积物变形构造主要为褶皱,形态特征表现为砂岩厚度在枢纽部位大大增加,也可见一些砂岩增厚和减薄现象,两者均是液化的砂岩在驱动力作用下的结果.滑塌过程中,滑塌层中的砂泥岩与海底沉积物之间的孔隙流体自由交换被切断,产生了暂时性的超压,导致了液化的发生.褶皱的轴线延伸方向为SSW-NNE,轴面倾斜方向主要为SEE(120°),指示古水流主要来自SEE方向,与浊积岩内底痕指示的古水流方向一致,说明斜坡沉积系统上发育的滑塌褶皱能够指示古水流方向.      

山东省灵山岛下白垩统青山群火山地震软沉积物变形构造特征及成因机制

近年来,针对山东省灵山岛地区软沉积物变形构造的研究呈现热潮,但研究层位主要集中于下白垩统莱阳群的浊积岩,对下白垩统青山群未见详述。利用野外露头与镜下薄片资料,详细描述了灵山岛地区下白垩统青山群的岩性特征、岩相组合、软沉积物变形构造类型与特征,指出研究区青山群软沉积物变形构造主要宿主岩层为陆相扇三角洲沉积,其沉积水体逐渐变浅,并伴随多次火山爆发。软沉积物变形构造类型主要有负载构造、球—枕构造、泄水构造、挤入构造、水塑性褶皱、塑性砂岩团块包卷构造、火山地震落石构造和"V"型地裂缝等,形成原因主要为火山爆发引起的古火山地震作用,成因机制主要分为地震波、火山碎屑物重力及惯性作用与瞬时差异气压效应3种,这与莱阳群浊积岩层位的软沉积物变形构造主要为滑塌与构造古地震机制不同。通过分析火山碎屑流堆积层位与软沉积物变形构造发育层位的关系,建立了青山群软沉积物变形构造的分布模式,即随着与火山口距离的变化,近源易见的脆性变形逐渐消失,中源以液化软沉积物变形与塑性变形为主体,远源呈现弱的液化软沉积物变形,且软沉积物变形构造的规模与距离呈负相关。     

快速沉积引发的软沉积物变形构造特征——以灵山岛下白垩统浊积岩为例

灵山岛修船厂剖面发育了多种类型的软沉积物变形构造,其中一些变形构造的要素发生了定向倾斜,影响因素尚不明确。结合野外露头观察和室内分析等方法,研究了变形构造的形成过程、触发因素和地质意义。结果表明：修船厂剖面的两套浊积岩之间发育了负载—挤入构造、泄水—沉积物充填构造和微断层等软沉积物变形构造;变形机制主要是流体化,触发因素为浊流的快速沉积导致的载荷压力。变形构造的形成过程主要与密度倒置梯度和横向剪切力两个驱动力有关,其中横向剪切力来源于浊流的流动,导致变形构造的要素发生定向倾斜。变形构造的要素的倾斜方向为SEE,指示古水流主要来自SEE方向,与浊积岩序列内底痕指示的古水流方向一致,说明浊流快速沉积形成的软沉积物变形构造能够指示古水流或古斜坡方向。     

安徽寿县新元古界一个滑塌-滑脱软沉积物变形复合构造的发现及地质初探

安徽寿县新元古界四十里长山组底部粉砂岩层中发现了一个滑塌-滑脱软沉积物变形复合构造,剖面观察显示,该沉积变形构造经历了滑塌变形、滑脱变形、震动液化变形等3次以上的变形过程,很好地保存了原始沉积面貌和沉积变形特征;分析该沉积变形构造的成因,发现变形构造属于软沉积物变形构造类型,形成于浅海陆棚边缘斜坡相带。引起软沉积物变形的动力是地震事件产生的多次震动波作用,造成软沉积物滑塌、滑脱褶皱、震动液化泄水等变形作用,形成了具有复杂变形特征的软沉积物变形复合体,是一次地震事件多次地震活动的沉积记录。     

山东省灵山岛下白垩统青山群火山地震软沉积物变形构造特征及成因机制*

近年来,针对山东省灵山岛地区软沉积物变形构造的研究呈现热潮,但研究层位主要集中于下白垩统莱阳群的浊积岩,对下白垩统青山群未见详述。利用野外露头与镜下薄片资料,详细描述了灵山岛地区下白垩统青山群的岩性特征、岩相组合、软沉积物变形构造类型与特征,指出研究区青山群软沉积物变形构造主要宿主岩层为陆相扇三角洲沉积,其沉积水体逐渐变浅,并伴随多次火山爆发。软沉积物变形构造类型主要有负载构造、球—枕构造、泄水构造、挤入构造、水塑性褶皱、塑性砂岩团块包卷构造、火山地震落石构造和“V”型地裂缝等,形成原因主要为火山爆发引起的古火山地震作用,成因机制主要分为地震波、火山碎屑物重力及惯性作用与瞬时差异气压效应3种,这与莱阳群浊积岩层位的软沉积物变形构造主要为滑塌与构造古地震机制不同。通过分析火山碎屑流堆积层位与软沉积物变形构造发育层位的关系,建立了青山群软沉积物变形构造的分布模式,即随着与火山口距离的变化,近源易见的脆性变形逐渐消失,中源以液化软沉积物变形与塑性变形为主体,远源呈现弱的液化软沉积物变形,且软沉积物变形构造的规模与距离呈负相关。     

灵山岛下白垩统软沉积物变形构造类型划分及其地质意义

软沉积物变形构造是沉积物沉积之后、固结成岩之前尚处于塑性状态时,在液化作用和各种驱动力作用下发生不同程度变形的一系列构造。灵山岛下白垩统发育有多尺度、多形态、多层位、多期次、多成因的软沉积物变形构造。为研究其具体类型和成因机理,以形态特征为基础,以驱动力为分类依据,将灵山岛下白垩统软沉积物变形构造划分为斜坡上的重力驱动、密度倒置条件下的重力驱动和孔隙流体作用下的剪切力驱动等三种类型。此外,结合灵山岛下白垩统滑塌体内部的软沉积物变形构造分布特征,根据斜坡上重力驱动的软沉积物变形构造形成时所遭受的应力类型,将其进一步分为挤压型、拉伸型和剪切型等三个亚类。在分析研究灵山岛软沉积物变形构造的基本类型、发育情况和分布特征等基础上,认为灵山岛早白垩世地震活动非常频繁。驱动力直接作用于软沉积物,驱动力的种类、大小、作用方式和持续时间是影响软沉积物变形构造类型、形态和规模的重要因素,因此,从驱动力角度对其进行系统划分具有科学性、适用性和可行性。探讨软沉积物变形构造的分类方案对其野外识别和成因分析具有科学价值。     

Palaeoseismicity in relation to basin tectonics as revealed from soft-sediment deformation structures of the Lower Triassic Panchet formation,Raniganj basin (Damodar valley), eastern India

The Raniganj basin in the Damodar valley of eastern India is located within the riftogenic Gondwana Master-Basin. The fluvio-lacustrine deposits of the Lower Triassic Panchet formation of the Damodar valley in the study area preserve various soft-sediment deformation structures such as slump folds, convolute laminae, flame structures, dish-and-pillar structures, sandstone dykes, pseudonodules and syn-sedimentary faults. Although such soft-sediment deformation structures maybe formed by various processes, in the present area the association of these structures, their relation to the adjacent sedimentary rocks and the tectonic and depositional setting of the formation suggest that these structures are seismogenic. Movements along the basin margin and the intra-basinal faults and resultant seismicity with moderate magnitude (2–5 on Richter scale) are thought to have been responsible for the soft-sediment deformations.     

Temporal and spatial changes of the submarine Cretaceous paleoslope in Northern Tunisia,inferred from slump folds analysis

This paper presents the first comprehensive, non-exhaustive, study of the genetic relationship between slump folds and the synsedimentary paleoslope during Cretaceous time in northern Tunisia. Slump folds occur mainly in the Cretaceous marl-dominated lithofacies, which exposes numerous slump folds structures. In addition, fault kinematic analysis is conducted to define the paleostress fields and the stress states characterizing the Cretaceous extension that triggers soft-sediment deformation and slumping. The MAM and the APM methods are used to deduce the paleoslope in several localities. The calculated values of paleoslope trend derived from MAM and APM methods precise the variation of the paleoslope trend during Cretaceous times in northern Tunisia. This paleoslope is ～NW-dipping during Berriasian, ～SSW-dipping during Valanginian, ～NW-dipping during the Barremian and ～N- to ～NNE or ～S- to ～SSW-dipping during Aptian–Albian period. The results of the back-tilted fault diagram show a ～North to ～Northeast-trending tectonics extension. The back-tilting of Cenomanian slump axis and poles of axial planes (MAM and APM methods) give close results with ～Southward or ～Northward-dipping paleoslope. The restored fault diagrams show ～North to ～Northeast-trending extension during Cenomanian times. Coniacian-Santonian marls deposits seal all the gravity-driven deformation structures. North Tunisian area exposes evidences for abundant soft-sediment deformation and slumping atop a northward facing submarine slope, which was probably dominant from the Early Cretaceous to Santonian with ～North-South tectonic extension related to the Southern Tethyan rifted continental margin evolution.     

Soft-sediment Deformation Structures Related to Earthquake from the Devonian of the Eastern North Qilian Mts. and Its Tectonic Significance

Devonian in the North Qilian orogenic belt and Hexi Corridor developed terrestrial molasse of later stage of foreland basin caused by collision between the North China plate and Qaidam microplate. The foreland basin triggered a intense earthquake, and formed seismites and earthquake-related soft-sediment deformation. The soft-sediment deformation structures of Devonian in the eastern North Qilian Mts. consist of seismo-cracks, sandstone dykes, syn-depositional faults, microfolds (micro-corrugated lamination), fluidized veins, load casts, flame structures, pillow structures and brecciation. The seismo-cracks, syn-depositional faults and microfolds are cracks, faults and folds formed directly by oscillation of earthquake. The seismic dykes formed by sediment instilling into seismic cracks. Fluidized veins were made by instilling into the seismo-fissures of the fluidized sands. The load casts, flame structures and pillow structures were formed by sinking and instilling caused from oscillation of earthquake along the face between sandy and muddy beds. The brecciation resulted from the oscillation of earthquake and cracking of sedimentary layers. The seismites and soft-sediment deformations in Devonian triggered the earthquake related to tectonic activities during the orogeny and uplift of North Qilian Mts.     

Experimental decipherment of the soft-sediment deformation observed in the upper part of the Talchir Formation (Lower Permian), Jharia Basin, India

Four types of soft-sediment folds of distinct geometry can be recognized in the upper part of the Talchir Formation (Lower Permian) of Jharia Basin, India. These folds, on systematic examination, indicate some events of progressive deformation. Experimental study reveals that if a layered stack of clay and overlying sand is allowed to flow slowly down a slope, differential velocity due to viscosity contrast leads to the deformation of the rheologic interface. The sharp planar contact gradually becomes wavy leading to the development of round-hinged folds involving sediments adjacent to it. With the advancement of the flow these folds gradually become overturned with the rotation of the axial plane in the direction of flow. Computer simulation suggests that progressive deformation of these folds by simple shearing may lead to the formation of tight isoclinal folds, which on dislocation along intrastratal normal faults may lead to the development of rootless isoclinal folds. The sheath folds observed in the studied section also indicate accentuation of the curved hinge due to simple shearing. The spatial distribution of these fold types in conjunction with the inferred direction of progressive deformation indicate basinward translation of the slump slice. If the same stack of sediments rapidly flows down the slope, the waveform generated at the interface quickly breaks in the form of roll-up recumbent fold due to Kelvin–Helmholtz instability.     

Soft-sediment deformation of sandstone related to the Dwyka glaciation in South Africa

Sandstones of the uppermost Witteberg Group in the Cape fold belt of South Africa exhibit unusual and distinctive soft-sediment deformation structures. These structures include folds, axial planar cleavage and micro-fold lineations. Interfering fold patterns and intersecting sets of lineations are indicative of repeated deformation. The sandstones are immediately overlain by glacial and proglacial sediments of the Carboniferous Dwyka Group, indicating that the deformation was related to glaciation. Possible environments of deformation include: (a) subglacial dragging of unconsolidated material, (b) subaqueous slumping beyond the limit of floating ice, and (c) englacial deformation of material incorporated by freezing into the base of the glacier.     

陆相湖盆沉积物滑塌变形研究进展

陆相湖盆中沉积物滑塌常造成复杂的同沉积变形,对确定古地震事件、古地形等有重要作用,系统研究滑塌变形体系有助于厘清变形成因、理解变形机理和深化区域构造背景认识。本文梳理国内外滑塌变形研究进展,总结沉积物顺坡滑塌的形成条件、滑塌变形特征,尤其是滑塌褶皱的形态演化、伴生构造、对古斜坡的指示、有关滑塌变形的物理模拟等,并结合野外变形成因的识别,探讨滑塌成因与后期构造成因变形的有效鉴别标志。综合分析认为,陆相湖盆滑塌变形与重力流沉积密不可分,单一滑塌体的褶皱形态从滑塌体后缘到前缘由圆柱状褶皱、紧闭等厚直立褶皱转变为蘑菇状褶皱,演化过程可划分为多个阶段。在滑塌褶皱中存在逆冲断层、碎屑脉体、不规则侵蚀面、软布丁构造等,引起滑塌变形的机制可分为应力作用机制和液化作用机制。物理模拟因其可改变材料物理参数的优势,可能成为未来滑塌变形的重要研究方向。指出在鉴别滑塌成因变形和后期构造成因变形研究中仍然存在较多争议,其中未固结沉积物的活化、再改造、生物扰动、液化现象的存在是确定软沉积物变形的关键,变形构造在大尺度、层系规模上具有相同的应力场并与区域构造背景相符合是后期构造成因变形的最有力证据。