形成湿地的“淹埋深-历时-频率”阈值研究进展

湿地水文是形成湿地的发生学因素,“淹埋深-历时-频率”(S, D, F)是表征湿地水文的特征指标。为了推进(S, D, F)阈值研究理论和方法的发展,总结了(S, D, F)阈值研究的一致结论:S阈值确定的原则是水饱和至地表;D阈值确定的原则是从水饱和开始到厌氧环境形成的时滞;F阈值应取≥50%。通过对这些一致结论的分析后认为:D阈值确定的原则存在着科学性问题;目前(S, D, F)阈值研究理论针对正常情况下湿地类型,不适合非正常情况下的湿地类型。为了科学地解决(S, D, F)阈值问题,必须构建新的(S, D, F)阈值确定的理论和方法,包括正常情况下和非正常情况(S, D, F)阈值确定的理论和方法以及(S, D, F)阈值科学性检验的理论和方法。     

湿地“淹埋深-历时-频率”阈值研究的理论和方法

针对"淹埋深-历时-频率"(S, D, F)阈值研究存在的问题,根据土壤学、植物生态学、系统论、地理系统学说以及反演理论等的相关原理,系统分析了湿地(S, D, F)阈值确定的理论和方法。结果表明:在正常情况下,水饱和至地表的最大地下水埋深、湿地植物主要根系分布层下限和沉水植物分布下界淹水深分别是湿地土壤上界、湿地植被上界和湿地下界的S阈值;D阈值只能通过湿地土壤或湿地植被边界界定在水位过程线上反演,稳定湿地边界的D阈值应取与50%频率值对应的D值或D值的多年平均值,波动湿地边界的D阈值是常数;"非正常情况下"湿地的D阈值应参照湿地水文地貌分类的同一区域子类中"正常情况下"的湿地的D阈值;检验D阈值科学性的标准是利用D阈值确定的湿地水文边界必须与湿地土壤边界或湿地植被边界耦合。     

三峡库区王家坡滑坡降雨阈值分析

滑坡失稳破坏的诱因众多,其中,降雨是最常见和最活跃的诱发因素[1]。为深入研究降雨对降雨型滑坡的控制作用,分析诱发滑坡失稳变形的降雨阈值,本文以三峡库区王家坡滑坡为例,计算滑坡累积位移的类破坏点,并选取三个不同观测时段,分析不同观测时段下各个类破坏点的前期累积降雨量,得出斜率阈值。研究结果表明:随观测时段增大,累积降雨量斜率先增大后减小,且同一观测时段下,累积降雨量斜率与时间间隔呈反相关关系。本文选取观测时段n=10,时间间隔d=1,计算各个类破坏点的降雨量斜率,并通过加权平均得降雨量斜率阈值K=10.95。如果累积降雨量斜率大于斜率阈值,则滑坡很有可能失稳破坏。     

镇江地区降雨导致滑坡规律统计分析

江苏镇江地区地属丘陵地带,近年来由于气候变化,调查资料显示镇江地区短时强降雨或持续时间较长的降雨经常 诱发大量浅层滑坡,降雨是区内滑坡主要影响因素,造成了较大的经济损失。文章通过对镇江地区300多个山体边坡进行 详细现场环境地质调查,结合收集气象资料,对该地区的滑坡与降雨相关参数的关系进行统计分析,得到了降雨量与降雨 持续时间对滑坡数量的变化关系。确定了镇江地区降雨阈值I-D 曲线,并将分析结果与其他地区进行了对比分析,研究成 果可为镇江地区滑坡治理和预警预报提供依据。     

考虑前期降雨的边坡稳定降雨阈值曲面

在经验性降雨阈值和边坡稳定性数值分析两大类研究的基础上,考虑了降雨入渗和非饱和土性质,使用岩土有限元软件Plaxis高级模式对滑坡预警降雨阈值进行研究分析。算例表明,将降雨量在降雨时间范围内分成2段后,得到的边坡稳定性变化与实际情况更接近,重新定义前期降雨为在给定初始条件下引起边坡最危险滑裂面到坡面之间土体吸力分布发生变化的降雨。前期降雨时长与潜在滑裂面最大深度成正比,与饱和渗透系数成反比。将前期降雨量引入到降雨强度—持时曲线中作为第三个空间坐标轴,将该曲线拓展为前期降雨量-降雨强度-持时曲面。通过一基岩型边坡算例展示了阈值曲面的建立方法,并通过与模型试验数据的对比验证了其可靠性。     

基于“阶跃”变形特征的降雨型滑坡预警判据探讨

由于滑坡灾害的发生具有随机性和复杂性,经常给人们生活造成严重的经济损失,甚至威胁生命安全,故建立滑坡预警判据及模型是减小损失的重要手段。文章首先确定了有效降雨量-变形速率-改进切线角为降雨型阶跃滑坡的预警关键判据。然后运用斜率单变点法确定滑坡“阶跃”变形曲线上的“破坏拐点”和“稳定拐点”并提取变形加速区间的详细信息,以此求解有效降雨量-变形速率-改进切线角综合预警判据阈值。最后,结合麻池村1号滑坡各发展阶段宏观变形特征,将时空演化规律有机结合,建立了4级递进式综合判据分级预警模型。结果表明：麻池村1号滑坡的运移形式为牵引式,在降雨因素的激发下,累计位移曲线呈典型的“阶跃”变形特征;麻池村1号滑坡变形受前期降雨影响,前期降雨与当期降雨组成一个降雨过程的时间间隔阈值为10 d,“前期+当期降雨”模式下对应的降雨阈值分别为24 mm、 32 mm;基于监测数据精细化分析以及改进切线角法获取的麻池村1号滑坡的位移速率阈值为12 mm/d。研究可为此类型滑坡灾害的预警提供理论基础和技术指导。     

镇江地区降雨导致滑坡规律统计分析

江苏镇江地区地属丘陵地带，近年来由于气候变化，调查资料显示镇江地区短时强降雨或持续时间较长的降雨经常 诱发大量浅层滑坡，降雨是区内滑坡主要影响因素，造成了较大的经济损失。文章通过对镇江地区300多个山体边坡进行 详细现场环境地质调查，结合收集气象资料，对该地区的滑坡与降雨相关参数的关系进行统计分析，得到了降雨量与降雨 持续时间对滑坡数量的变化关系。确定了镇江地区降雨阈值I-D 曲线，并将分析结果与其他地区进行了对比分析，研究成 果可为镇江地区滑坡治理和预警预报提供依据。     

降雨诱发滑坡阶跃型变形的预测分析及应用

滑坡进入蠕动变形阶段之后,往往难以及时开展勘察治理工作,合理的临灾预警是有效减少滑坡灾害损失的重要手段。首先确定降雨诱发“阶跃型”滑坡的预警关键判据为前期降雨、当次降雨、位移速率,并引入“一个降雨过程”定义滑坡监测的降雨区间,将预警过程分为当次降雨和前期降雨+当次降雨两种模式。然后运用最小二乘法确定滑坡“阶跃”变形曲线上的“破坏拐点”和“稳定拐点”用以确定变形加速区间,以此求解前期降雨、当次降雨以及移速率阈值。最后以王家坡滑坡为例,设计了两种模式下的5级递进式分级预警模型。研究表明：（1）前期降雨与当次降雨组成“一个降雨过程”的时间间隔为7 d;（2）王家坡滑坡的位移速率阈值为20 mm/d;（3）前期降雨+当次降雨模式下王家坡滑坡的前期降雨、当次降雨阈值分别为10、15 mm,当次降雨模式下王家坡滑坡的降雨阈值为25 mm。     

基于WEB的浙江省降雨型滑坡预警预报系统

滑坡发生的最主要诱发因素是降雨.基于浙江省淳安、磐安、庆元和永嘉4个县的历史滑坡资料, 在研究降雨量、降雨强度和降雨过程与滑坡灾害的空间分布、时间上的对应关系, 建立起滑坡灾害时空分布与降雨过程的统计关系, 确定区域性滑坡的临界降雨量和降雨强度阀值的基础上, 开发出了降雨型滑坡预警预报系统, 其中采用临界降雨量模型和有效降雨量模型来进行预警预报.系统留给浙江省气象台一个传送数据的接口, 气象台将每天按时上传降雨数据, 数据保存在后台数据库MicrosoftSQLServer中.建成的系统能够自动获取数据库中的数据生成时间与降雨量实时曲线, 当降雨量达到降雨强度阀值时, 触发MAPGIS图件, 在Internet上发布区域预警预报信息, 并提供预警措施.      

台风暴雨型滑坡降雨阈值曲线研究以福建地区为例

台风暴雨型滑坡具有群发性、规模小、爆发性强的特点,容易造成严重的人员伤亡和巨大的财产损失。本文应用极值理论分析,以极端降雨重现期的极大值作为标准并计算有效的降雨区间,通过统计分析,确定触发暴雨型滑坡的降雨阈值曲线。应用模型对福建地区台风暴雨型滑坡进行了分析,福建省3个灾害高发区为:南平三明地区、泉州地区和宁德地区。南平三明地区降雨阈值较高,但发生的滑坡数量较多,主要以3d的降雨为主;泉州地区小于3d的连续降雨和大于8d的连续降雨是触发该地滑坡的主要降雨区间;宁德地区对短期降雨较为敏感,滑坡主要由1d的降雨引起。比较分析研究表明,台风地区触发滑坡的降雨阈值要高于非台风地区。降雨型滑坡阈值主要受气候,地质和土壤厚度影响,气候因素为主控因素。     

Exploiting historical rainfall and landslide data in a spatial database for the derivation of critical rainfall thresholds

Critical rainfall thresholds for landslides are powerful tools for preventing landslide hazard. The thresholds are commonly estimated empirically starting from rainfall events that triggered landslides in the past. The creation of the appropriate rainfall–landslide database is one of the main efforts in this approach. In fact, an accurate agreement between the landslide and rainfall information, in terms of location and timing, is essential in order to correctly estimate the rainfall–landslide relationships. A further issue is taking into account the average moisture conditions prior the triggering event, which reasonably may be crucial in determining the sufficient amount of precipitation. In this context, the aim of this paper is exploiting historical landslide and rainfall data in a spatial database for the derivation of critical rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrence in Sicily, southern Italy. The hourly rainfall events that caused landslides occurred in the twentieth century were specifically identified and reconstructed. A procedure was proposed to automatically convert rain guages charts recorded on paper tape into digital format and then to provide the cumulative rainfall hyetograph in digital format. This procedure is based on a segmentation followed by signal recognition techniques which allow to digitalize and to recognize the hyetograph automatically. The role of rainfall prior to the landslide events was taken into account by including in the analysis the rainfall occurred 5, 15 and 30 days before each landslide. Finally, cumulated rainfall duration thresholds for different exceedance probability levels were determined. The obtained thresholds resulted in agreement with the regional curves proposed by other authors for the same area; antecedent rainfall turned out to be particularly important in triggering landslides.     

Definition and performance of a threshold-based regional early warning model for rainfall-induced landslides

A process chain for the definition and the performance assessment of an operational regional warning model for rainfall-induced landslides, based on rainfall thresholds, is proposed and tested in a landslide-prone area in the Campania region, southern Italy. A database of 96 shallow landslides triggered by rainfall in the period 2003–2010 and rainfall data gathered from 58 rain gauges are used. First, a set of rainfall threshold equations are defined applying a well-known frequentist method to all the reconstructed rainfall conditions responsible for the documented landslides in the area of analysis. Several thresholds at different exceedance probabilities (percentiles) are evaluated, and nine different percentile combinations are selected for the activation of three warning levels. Subsequently, for each combination, the issuing of warning levels is computed by comparing, over time, the measured rainfall with the pre-defined warning level thresholds. Finally, the optimal percentile combination to be employed in the regional early warning system, i.e. the one providing the best model performance in terms of success and error indicators, is selected employing the “event, duration matrix, performance” (EDuMaP) method.     

Rainfall thresholds for the forecasting of landslide occurrence at regional scale

This paper concerns a regional scale warning system for landslides that relies on a decisional algorithm based on the comparison between rainfall recordings and statistically defined thresholds. The latter were based on the total amount of rainfall, which was cumulated considering different time intervals: 1-, 2- and 3-day cumulates took into account the critical rainfall influencing shallow movements, whilst a variable time interval cumulate (up to 240 days) was used to consider the triggering of deep-seated landslides in low permeability terrains. A prototypal version of the model was initially set up to define statistical thresholds. Then, thresholds were calibrated using a database of past georegistered and dated landslides. A validation procedure showed that the calibration highly improves the results and therefore the model was integrated in the regional warning system of Emilia Romagna (Italy) for civil protection purposes. The proposed methodology could be easily implemented in other similar regions and countries where a sufficiently organised meteorological network is present.     

Rainfall thresholds for prediction of shallow landslides around Chamoli-Joshimath region,Garhwal Himalayas,India

Majority of landslides in the Indian sub-continent are triggered by rainfall. Several attempts in the global scenario have been made to establish rainfall thresholds in terms of intensity-duration and antecedent rainfall models on global, regional and local scales for the occurrence of landslides. However, in the context of the Indian Himalayas, the rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrences are not yet understood fully. Neither on regional scale nor on local scale, establishing such rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrences in Indian Himalayas has yet been attempted. This paper presents an attempt towards deriving local rainfall thresholds for landslides based on daily rainfall data in and around Chamoli-Joshimath region of the Garhwal Himalayas, India. Around 128 landslides taken place in last 4 years from 2009 to 2012 have been studied to derive rainfall thresholds. Out of 128 landslides, however, rainfall events pertaining to 81 landslides were analysed to yield an empirical intensity–duration threshold for landslide occurrences. The rainfall threshold relationship fitted to the lower boundary of the landslide triggering rainfall events is I?=?1.82 D ^?0.23 (I?=?rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour and D?=?duration in hours). It is revealed that for rainfall events of shorter duration (≤24 h) with a rainfall intensity of 0.87 mm/h, the risk of landslide occurrence in this part of the terrain is expected to be high. Also, the role of antecedent rainfall in causing landslides was analysed by considering daily rainfall at failure and different period cumulative rainfall prior to failure considering all 128 landslides. It is observed that a minimum 10-day antecedent rainfall of 55 mm and a 20-day antecedent rainfall of 185 mm are required for the initiation of landslides in this area. These rainfall thresholds presented in this paper may be improved with the hourly rainfall data vis-à-vis landslide occurrences and also data of later years. However, these thresholds may be used in landslide warning systems for this particular region of the Garhwal Himalayas to guide the traffic and provide safety to the tourists travelling along this pilgrim route during monsoon seasons.     

The rainfall intensity–duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows: an update

A global database of 2,626 rainfall events that have resulted in shallow landslides and debris flows was compiled through a thorough literature search. The rainfall and landslide information was used to update the dependency of the minimum level of rainfall duration and intensity likely to result in shallow landslides and debris flows established by Nel Caine in 1980. The rainfall intensity–duration (ID) values were plotted in logarithmic coordinates, and it was established that with increased rainfall duration, the minimum average intensity likely to trigger shallow slope failures decreases linearly, in the range of durations from 10 min to 35 days. The minimum ID for the possible initiation of shallow landslides and debris flows was determined. The threshold curve was obtained from the rainfall data using an objective statistical technique. To cope with differences in the intensity and duration of rainfall likely to result in shallow slope failures in different climatic regions, the rainfall information was normalized to the mean annual precipitation and the rainy-day normal. Climate information was obtained from the global climate dataset compiled by the Climate Research Unit of the East Anglia University. The obtained global ID thresholds are significantly lower than the threshold proposed by Caine (Geogr Ann A 62:23–27, 1980), and lower than other global thresholds proposed in the literature. The new global ID thresholds can be used in a worldwide operational landslide warning system based on global precipitation measurements where local and regional thresholds are not available..     

Rainfall thresholds for debris flow initiation in the Wenchuan earthquake-stricken area,southwestern China

The Wenchuan earthquake-stricken area is frequently hit by heavy rainfall, which often triggers sediment-related disasters, such as shallow landslides, debris flows, and related natural events, sometimes causing tremendous damage to lives, property, infrastructure, and environment. The assessment of the rainfall thresholds for debris flow occurrence is very important in order to improve forecasting and for risk management. In the context of the Wenchuan earthquake-stricken area, however, the rainfall thresholds for triggering debris flows are not well understood. With the aim of defining the critical rainfall thresholds for this area, a detailed analysis of the main rainstorm events was carried out. This paper presents 11 rainfall events that induced debris flows which occurred between 2008 and 2012 after the Wenchuan earthquake. The rainfall thresholds were defined in terms of mean rainfall intensity I, rainfall duration D, and normalized using the mean annual precipitation (MAP). An ID threshold and a normalized I _MAP D threshold graph could be set up for the Wenchuan earthquake-stricken area which forms the lower boundary of the domain with debris flow-triggering rainfall events. The rainfall threshold curves obtained for the study area were compared with the local, regional, and global curves proposed by various authors. The results suggest that debris flow initiation in the study area almost requires a higher amount of rainfall and greater intensity than elsewhere. The comparison of rainfall intensity prior to and after the earthquake clearly indicates that the critical rainfall intensity necessary to trigger debris flows decreased after the earthquake. Rainfall thresholds presented in this paper are generalized, so that they can be used in debris flow warning systems in areas with the same geology as the Wenchuan earthquake-stricken area.     

北京市泥石流易发区降雨预警阈值研究

泥石流灾害合理的雨量预警阈值不仅与历史泥石流灾害发生时的降雨量有关,且与研究区域的气候、地形地貌、地质、植被等密切相关。论文采用雨场分割法和GIS技术研究了影响泥石流启动的降雨和地质背景两大因素,在对北京市泥石流灾害易发分区的基础上,结合北京地区已发生的82起泥石流的易发性分区和雨量值,提出了不同泥石流易发等级条件下的雨量预警阈值。研究成果已经在2015年7月17日北京房山区西区沟泥石流预警中成功应用,为泥石流区域预警预报提供了一种新的思路。     

滑坡监测预警国内外研究现状及评述

本文从降雨临界值研究、监测技术方法、区域性监测预警系统三个方面对滑坡监测预警的国内外研究现状进行了回顾和总结。首先归纳了国内外28个国家或地区的滑坡降雨临界值及统计方法,三个模型——日降雨量模型、前期降雨量模型和前期土体含水状态模型,基本概括了当前降雨诱发滑坡临界值的确定方法;但由于降雨入渗触发滑坡的复杂性,不同机理的滑坡"需要"不同的降雨临界值;目前的研究趋势是对雨量雨强雨时—土体渗流场动态变化—土体抗剪强度变化的耦合关系进行研究。按监测对象的不同,滑坡监测可分为四大类,即位移监测、物理场监测、地下水监测和外部诱发因素监测;按监测手段的不同,则可分为人工监测、简易监测、专业监测三大类;目前国内外在滑坡监测技术、方法、手段上并无太大差距,专业仪器已成为常规设备,只是由于价格因素得不到普及;一些新技术如InSAR、三维激光扫描等能很快应用到滑坡监测领域;监测数据的采集和传输也都实现了自动化和远程化;监测和预警系统有向Web—GIS发展的趋势。利用一个地区的滑坡易发区划或危险区划,结合降雨临界值,可以设定不同的预警级别,在区内布设一定数量的雨量站,监测雨量加上预报雨量,就可进行滑坡预警预报,国内外的区域性降雨型滑坡监测预警大体都是这个思路和做法,该方法在对公众进行警示方面起到了良好效果,但由于预警的范围太大,在具体的单点防治上,难以做到有效。我国在近10年开展了大量的监测预警工作,并取得了丰硕的成果,但根据统计数据,其成功预警率却并不理想,这一方面表现在成功预警实例中专业预警所占比例过低,另一方面同时表现在发生的大量的地质灾害在已有的预警点之外。制约目前工作有效性的主要问题是滑坡隐患点的排查和识别问题,因为只有识别出了隐患点才能进行下一步的监测和预警,它是一切工作的基础。而解决这一问题的重要途径是分析区域上的滑坡发育规律,找到有效的隐患点识别技术方法,以及引进风险管理的概念,进行监测资源的合理分配和有效预警。     

山洪灾害临界雨量研究综述

临界雨量是一个关键的山洪灾害预警指标。按其技术原理将临界雨量推求方法划分为数据驱动的统计归纳法和基于灾变物理机制的水文水力学法分别进行评述,并介绍了临界雨量指标的两个拓展:动态临界雨量和暴雨临界曲线,综述了临界雨量不确定性分析的研究进展。通过综述发现:中国目前主要应用的是较简单的统计归纳法;临界雨量推求主要考虑前期降雨量（前期土壤饱和度）和时段累积降雨量两个因素的影响或仅后者一个;临界雨量指标难以反映山洪灾害的规模;考虑临界雨量不确定性有助于提高预警质量,但如何充分考虑其影响仍然是一个挑战。     

Objective definition of rainfall intensity–duration thresholds for the initiation of post-fire debris flows in southern California

Rainfall intensity–duration (ID) thresholds are commonly used to predict the temporal occurrence of debris flows and shallow landslides. Typically, thresholds are subjectively defined as the upper limit of peak rainstorm intensities that do not produce debris flows and landslides, or as the lower limit of peak rainstorm intensities that initiate debris flows and landslides. In addition, peak rainstorm intensities are often used to define thresholds, as data regarding the precise timing of debris flows and associated rainfall intensities are usually not available, and rainfall characteristics are often estimated from distant gauging locations. Here, we attempt to improve the performance of existing threshold-based predictions of post-fire debris-flow occurrence by utilizing data on the precise timing of debris flows relative to rainfall intensity, and develop an objective method to define the threshold intensities. We objectively defined the thresholds by maximizing the number of correct predictions of debris flow occurrence while minimizing the rate of both Type I (false positive) and Type II (false negative) errors. We identified that (1) there were statistically significant differences between peak storm and triggering intensities, (2) the objectively defined threshold model presents a better balance between predictive success, false alarms and failed alarms than previous subjectively defined thresholds, (3) thresholds based on measurements of rainfall intensity over shorter duration (≤60 min) are better predictors of post-fire debris-flow initiation than longer duration thresholds, and (4) the objectively defined thresholds were exceeded prior to the recorded time of debris flow at frequencies similar to or better than subjective thresholds. Our findings highlight the need to better constrain the timing and processes of initiation of landslides and debris flows for future threshold studies. In addition, the methods used to define rainfall thresholds in this study represent a computationally simple means of deriving critical values for other studies of nonlinear phenomena characterized by thresholds.