Metal anomalies in till in the Sarvlaxviken area,Lovisa, southern Finland

Geochemical investigations of till is a widely used method in metal exploration as the till commonly inherits the geochemical signature (including the metal contents) of the parent bedrock. In this investigation, over 2000 till samples were collected in the Sarvlaxviken area, southern Finland, where several polymetallic (Cu, Zn, Pb, As, Sn, W and In) veins recently have been discovered in Proterozoic crust along the border between Late Svecofennian granites and the Wiborg Batholith. The bedrock is commonly covered by compact and poorly sorted basal till, formed during the Late Weichselian glaciation event. Several glacial-transported boulders, with high contents of Cu, Zn, As, Sn, Mo and Bi and derived from the local bedrock, have also been discovered on top of the till and provide evidence for concealed mineralisation in the local bedrock under the till cover. The frequent distribution of till in the Sarvlaxviken area provides excellent conditions for the search of such hidden mineralisation by means of systematic till sampling, even if large farm field areas, composed of clay-rich sediments, and seawater-covered areas (Sarvlaxviken bay), had to be avoided in the sampling program. The till samples were collected during university courses and training programs led by the authors and were analysed in a cost-efficient and certified laboratory. Obtained geochemical data were statistically processed by using K-means clustering algorithms which can be used to treat large sets of geochemical data. The results provided anomalies that mainly occur in till with a thickness of <1 m and are considered to be derived from a local bedrock source. The discovered anomalies provide strong evidence for numerous undiscovered veins beneath the till cover.     

基岩区寻找隐伏矿的地球化学方法:构造地球化学测量

构造地球化学测量是在基岩出露区发现深部矿化信息的一种较为有效的方法。本文介绍了构造地球化学的一些基本概念和构造地球化学测量方法的发展历程。为解决岩石样(构造岩样)的代表性和均匀性,提出了方格采样法,即在每个采样网格内多点采样组合分析采样方法,采集以构造破碎带物质、裂隙充填物、蚀变岩石、矿化岩石等为主的能反映深部矿化信息的样品。利用该方法在甘肃西和地区进行了1∶50 000构造地球化学测量试验,采用500 m×500 m的采样网格,在每个采样单元中采集6~8个子样组合,分析了其中的Au、Ag、Pb、Zn等19种元素,圈定了较好的金地球化学异常,经查证发现了金矿体。在江西岩背锡矿外围开展1∶10 000的构造地球化学测量试验,采用100 m×100 m的网格,采集构造裂隙样品,圈定了Sn等元素的地球化学异常,对圈定的Sn地球化学异常进行钻探验证,发现深部隐伏Sn矿体。不同比例尺的构造地球化学测量试验表明,构造地球化学测量在基岩出露区能有效发现深部矿化信息,在寻找隐伏矿工作中具有较好的应用前景,在中国黔西南地区寻找卡林型金矿和东南沿海地区火山岩覆盖区找矿中能发挥一定的作用。     

Metallogeny of the Rapakivi granites

Summary Two major types of ore deposits occur with Proterozoic rapakivi granite plutons: (1) greisen-, vein-, und skarn-type Sn(-W-Be-Zn-Cu-Pb) deposits associated with specialized late-stage granites, and (2) Fe oxide-Cu (-U-Au-Ag) deposits.The Sn-polymetallic deposits are usually hydrothermal greisen- and vein-type occurrences (Rondönia and Amazonas in Brazil, southeastern Missouri, southern Finland, the Ukraine, India); skarn-type deposits occur in the Pitkdranta ore field, Russian Karelia. The deposits are closely associated with topaz-bearing microcline-albite granites which occur as autometamorphosed late intrusive phases of the 1.0 to 1.7 Ga granite plutons and show the characteristics of Phanerozoic tin granites: high Sn, Li, Rb, Ga, Nb, and F, low Ba, Sr, Ti, and Zr, and a strong negative Eu anomaly. The anomalous geochemical character is interpreted to be in part magmatic, in part metasomatic in origin.The huge Olympic Dam deposit in South Australia is a hydrothermally mineralized hematite breccia complex in a 1.59 Ga rapakivi granite pluton. The deposit contains over 2000 million tons of ore with 1.6% Cu, 0.06% U₃O₈, 3.5 ppm Ag, and 0.6 ppm Au. The apatite-bearing Fe and Fe-Cu deposits of southeastern Missouri are associated with volcanics of the St. Francois Mountains ring complexes. The principal ore minerals are magnetite and hematite, locally also Cu sulphides. With more than 30 Fe deposits, the St. Francois Mountains constitute a major Fe provice.

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Metallogenese der Rapakivi-Granite

Zusammenfassung Mit proterozoischen Rapakivi-Granitplutonen treten zwei Haupttypen von Erzlagerstätten auf: (1) greisen-, gang- und skarnartige Sn(-W-Be-Zn-Cu-Pb)-Lagerstätten, die mit speziellen Graniten eines Spätstadiums verbunden sind und (2) Fe-Oxid-Cu (-U-Au-Ag)-Lagerstätten.Die Sn-Polymetall-Lagerstätten sind normalerweise hydrothermale greisen- und gangartige Vorkommen (Rondônia und Amazonas in Brasilien, SE Missouri, S Finnland, Ukraine, Indien), skarnartige Lagerstätten treten im Erzrevier von Pitkäranta in Russisch-Karelien auf. Die Lagerstätten sind eng mit Topas-führenden Mikroklin-Albit-Graniten verbunden, die als autometamorphisierte spätintrusive Phasen der 1,0 bis 1,7 Ga alten Granitplutone auftreten und die charakteristischen Merkmale von phanerozoischen Zinn-Graniten zeigen: hohes Sn, Li, Rb, Ga, Nb und F, niedriges Ba, Sr, Ti und Zr und eine stark negative Eu-Anomalie. Die Ursache des anomalen geochemischen Charakters wird zum Teil als magmatisch, zum Teil als metasomatisch interpretiert.Die riesige Lagerstätte von Olympic Dam in Südaustralien ist ein Komplex aus hydrothermal mineralisierter Hämatit-Brekzie in einem 1,59 Ga alten Rapakivi-Granitpluton. Das Vorkommen enthält über 2000 Millionen Tonnen Erz mit 1,6% Cu, 0,06% U₃O₈, 3,5 ppm Ag und 0,6 ppm Au. Die Apatit-führenden Fe- und Fe-Cu-Lagerstätten von SE Missouri sind mit Vulkaniten der Ringkomplexe in den St. Francois Mountains assoziiert. Die wichtigsten Erzminerale sind Magnetit und Hämatit, lokal auch Cu-Sulfide. Mit mehr als 30 Fe-Lagerstätten stellen die St. Francois Mountains eine bedeutende Fe-Provinz dar.

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With 3 Figures     

答“对秦岭奥长环斑花岗岩质疑”

环斑花岗岩是一种特殊结构的花岗岩类，并且多数产在元古宙克拉通中。笔者曾报道了在秦岭造山带中发育有印支期具有环斑结构的花岗质岩石。“对秦岭奥长环斑花岗岩质疑”一文认为它们不是环斑花岗岩，并引用Ramo的图表来说明自己的观点。本文将从以下几方面进行讨论：秦岭环斑花岗岩的研究历史；环斑花岗岩的定义；世界上环斑花岗岩的成因类型；秦岭环斑花岗岩的副矿物及铁镁含量和环斑钾长石特征；秦岭环斑花岗岩与基性岩共存等。本文还论证了秦岭环斑花岗岩不同于元古宙非造山环斑花岗岩，而是一种造山型的环斑花岗岩，其形成于后造山环境，是挤压（造山）向拉张（稳定）转折时期的产物。最后对研究秦岭环斑花岗岩的几个理论问题进行了探讨。     

Lithology and trace-metal content in till in the kuhmo granite-greenstone terrain, eastern Finland

Rocks of the Archaean Kuhmo greenstone belt and the fine fraction (− 63 μm) of 236 till samples were analysed for Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn and Fe mainly with the AAS method. The influence of bedrock upon the lithology and geochemistry of till is clear, and can be seen immediately at the proximal contact. Expected trace-metal contents for the fine fraction of till were calculated using the average metal contents of the rock types and the proportions of these rock types in the till (2–6 cm pebbles). The expected values were then compared with the measured values in the fine fraction of till at the same locality. This approach seems effective for lithological comparison between various grain-size fractions of till.In general, the measured metal contents are clearly lower than expected. This indicates that the proportion of the greenstone material in the fine fraction of the till is smaller than in the coarse fraction. Correlations between measured and expected values of individual trace metals as well as their correlation with the different rock types are low, in most cases indicating inconsistent variation in the lithology of the coarse and fine fraction of the till. Good positive correlations between the number of pebbles of mafic metavolcanics and contents of Cu, Co, Mn and Fe in the fine fraction of till show that the influence of these rocks on the trace-element geochemistry of the tills in the study area is most significant as might be expected.     

环斑花岗岩研究及存在的问题

综述了环斑花岩研究的新进展，环斑花岗岩既可以出现于从太古代到显生宙的各个地质时期，也可以产生于造山带中。这些不同时代，不同构造环境环境特别是造山环斑花岗岩与经典的元古克拉通上的环斑花岗岩在岩石学，地球化学和产生的构造动力学背景上有何异同今后需要研究的问题，这也涉及到环斑花岗岩的概念及其与环斑状花岗岩的区别等新问题。     

Application of till geochemistry to gold exploration, Ilomantsi, Finland

The Archean bedrock of the Ilomantsi area consists of narrow greenstone belts between dome-like granitoids. The main tectonic phases are isoclinal folding, dragging of isoclinal folds around subvertical axes and regional faulting. Conspicuous anomalies of As, Au, Mo and W were revealed in the course of regional geochemical mapping of till, which led to more detailed studies in Ilomantsi. The data presented in this study are based mainly on the results of 2960 till samples collected by light percussion drill at local scale (16 samples/km²), but also on the results of regional (1 sample/4 km²) and detailed (100–400 samples/km²) sampling and on rock samples collected from outcrops. The analytical methods most commonly used were emission spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry and spectrometry.The results indicate that the lowest part of the basal till is dominated by local debris and that the geochemistry of the till reflects well the underlying bedrock. The highest Au values exist near the contacts of tonalite and supracrustal rocks. Arsenic follows intimately the directions of faulting. The anomalous contents of W and Mo are restricted to the southern part of the 15-km² Kuittila tonalite. Potassium, Na and Ca form conspicious anomalies in till, cutting both the supracrustal rocks and the granitoids. Local studies revealed in the Kuittila tonalite a notable network of Mo- and W-bearing quartz veins restricted to tensional zones of main fault directions, which are cut by gold-bearing shear zones and quartz vein nets. These shear zones are of en echelon type and they are silicified, sericitized, tournalinized, Na-depleted and partly carbonitized. The hosting tonalite is intensely biotitized. These metasomatic features of the bedrock can be correlated to the wider anomalies of K, Na and Ca in till. The implication is that significant migration of mobile elements has taken place in the bedrock of the study area and that, in places, gold has participated in these processes.     

Geochronology of granite and associated Sn mineralization in the Shuangyuanchong Sn deposit and its implication for Sn-W prospecting potential in the Shizhuyuan-Hehuaping area,the Nanling region,South ChinaSCIEI北大核心CSCD

南岭成矿带是全球最重要的钨锡成矿带之一,区内钨锡成矿条件优渥,是开展钨锡找矿勘查的重要目标区。然而如何开展钨锡找矿工作,尤其是在已有矿床周缘圈定成矿远景区,是钨锡成矿作用研究以及找矿勘查工作关注的重要科学问题。双园冲矿床位于南岭成矿带中西段,处于荷花坪与柿竹园两个大型锡钨多金属矿田中间,并与两个矿田处于同一构造体系,但目前对该矿床的研究程度较低,由此也制约了其矿床成因研究及该区的找矿部署。本次研究获得双园冲云英岩化花岗岩的锆石和独居石原位LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年龄分别为161.2±2.5Ma和157.1±1.8Ma,与云英岩型矿石中锡石原位LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年龄(158.9±2.9Ma)一致,二者均形成于晚侏罗世,表明其具有密切的成因关系,这一年龄也与南岭成矿带钨锡成矿大爆发时代(150-160Ma)一致。综合对比双园冲锡矿及与其空间相邻的柿竹园和荷花坪锡多金属矿田特征显示,三者成岩成矿时代一致,岩体侵位和矿体分布均受NE向断裂控制,矿体也均赋存于中-上泥盆统碳酸盐岩地层中,并且成矿花岗岩具有相似的岩石学特征和岩浆源区。综合以上信息,本文提出三个矿床可能形成于同一次岩浆热液活动,成矿岩体可能来自地壳深部同一个大岩浆房,柿竹园和荷花坪之间的区域具有发育晚侏罗世花岗岩体及相关钨锡矿的较大潜力。根据双园冲锡矿及其周缘大型锡钨矿床浅部脉状Pb-Zn-Fe-Mn矿化和深部矽卡岩-云英岩型Sn-W矿化的特征,提出研究区乃至整个南岭地区浅部脉状Pb-Zn-Fe-Mn矿化是深部Sn-W找矿勘查的有利部位。     

Glacial deposits at Wylfa Head,Anglesey, North Wales: Evidence for Late Devensian deposition in a non-marine environment

The nature and origin of glacial sediments at Wylfa Head are described, and their significance with regard to sedimentary environments during Late Devensian deglaciation of the Irish Sea Basin is discussed. Recent models of deglaciation under glaciomarine conditions are challenged. The Quaternary sequence at Wylfa consists of eroded and glaciotectonically deformed bedrock, locally derived lodgement till, calcareous silt-rich lodgement till containing northern erratics, discontinuous units of orange-brown silty sand of possible aeolian origin, and grey laminated freshwater silts filling a small kettle hole. The till units thicken to the south where the surface is drumlinised. It is concluded that the landforms and deposits result from a warm-based Irish Sea glacier, which moved towards the southwest. Spatial variation in basal water pressure resulted from localised drainage through zones of more heavily jointed bedrock. Rapid glacial erosion occurred in areas where subglacial water pressure was relatively high, while deposition of the resulting basal sediment took place where water pressures were reduced. The glacier also carried basal calcareous silty till onshore, which was deposited by lodgement processes. None of the deposits at Wylfa are interpreted as glaciomarine in origin, and there is no evidence at this site for an isostatically induced marine transgression prior to deglaciation.     

对秦岭奥长环斑花岗岩的质疑

本文介绍了环斑结构的含义及奥长环斑花岗岩的地质与地球化学特征。在此基础上对所谓的秦岭奥长环斑花岗岩带提出质疑，并提出秦岭中的一些花岗岩虽然具有环斑结构，但不是奥长环斑花岗岩。     

Berdyaush pluton of rapakivi granites,South Urals: New data on the geological structure and geodynamic evolution

The new version of the geological structure of the Berdyaush pluton (a single intrusion of rapakivi granites in the Urals) presented in this paper is significantly distinct from the previous structural schemes. Rapakivi granites compose no more than 10–20% of the area of the pluton and they are widespread only in its northeastern and southwestern flanks. The contacts between gabbro (I phase), hybrid syenodiorites (II phase), and rapakivi granites (III phase) are transitional, metasomatic. The hybrid syenodiorites and rapakivi granites are formed after gabbroic rocks as a result of their intense thermal and metasomatic transformation by the deep fluids. The driving force of this process could be the unilateral compression of the Berdyaush pluton resulting from formation of the eastward continental rift in the beginning of the Middle Riphean.     

Ages and geochemistry of Laojunshan granites in southeastern Yunnan, China: implications for W-Sn polymetallic ore deposits

The Southeastern Yunnan region is one of the most important polymetallic ore districts in South China. Located in the southern margin of the South China Block, these ore districts are part of a wider granite-related magmatic-hydrothermal system. Laojunshan granite intrusions, located in the western part of the Southeastern Yunnan, are closely related to W-Sn mineralisation. In this paper we report zircon U-Pb ages, geochemical and petrological characteristics for the ore-related granites in Laojunshan area. Three samples from three intrusive suites of the granitic rocks in Laojunshan intrusion have been analyzed by the LA-ICPMS zircon U-Pb techniques, yielding ages of 86.66?±?0.42 Ma, 86.72?±?0.47 Ma and 86.02?±?0.48 Ma, respectively. Bulk analysis reveals that three intrusive suites are strongly-peraluminous, silica-rich, aluminum-rich and alkali-rich granites and their ACNK values fall mainly into a small range of 1.10–1.38. Moreover, all granites show enriched Rb, La and Zr and depleted Ba, Sr and Ti, as well as a uniformly flat REE-pattern with a marked negative Eu anomaly. The granites and polymetallic W–Sn mineralization possibly both occurred during the Late Coniacian.     

Variscan Sn–W–Mo metallogeny in the gravity picture of the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge granite batholith (Central Europe)

Late Variscan wolframite (± molybdenite) and cassiterite–wolframite greisen, skarn and vein deposits occur in a close spatial association with the granites of the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge batholith (KHEB) in Central Europe. We examined the distribution of the deposits in relation to the gravity field affected by Late Variscan granites using the data from previous gravity and metallogenic studies. Late Variscan granites are differentiated into earlier biotite monzogranites (low-F granites) and later biotite or lithium mica syenogranites (high-F granites) in accordance with the previous classifications. All the outcrops of granites in the KHEB region and their hidden continuation are confined to the Bouguer anomaly contour of − 20 mGal. The Sn–W–Mo (rare metal) deposits and occurrences are within the gravity contour of − 30 mGal with the exception of the Grossschirma stratiform tin deposit in the Freiberg polymetallic ore district. We constructed a geological model based on the gravity data along two profiles across the KHEB showing the position of some rare metal deposits and of outcropping and hidden granite bodies. The models show that the overlapping of earlier and later granites is in the areas of the most intense regional gravity minima. These coincide with the Eastern Volcano-Plutonic Complex (Altenberg minimum), which encloses large volumes of felsic extrusives, microgranite dikes and granites, and the Western Plutonic Complex (Eibenstock minimum), with small volumes of felsic dikes and predominance of earlier and later granites, with no extrusives preserved. There is no distinct relationship between the masses of Late Variscan granites and the distribution and the sizes of associated W ± Mo and Sn–W deposits. We prefer the idea that rare metal mineralization was formed by hydrothermal fluids derived from outside of presently outcropping granites. It originated in two cycles: one connected with the formation of earlier granites producing W ± Mo associations and the other one associated with later granites connected with Sn–W mineralization. Mineralizing fluids were probably generated by mantle–crustal interaction in the crust near the mantle–crust boundary as also indicated by lamprophyric intrusions coeval with the Late Variscan granitic magmatism.     

Utilizing glacial geology in uranium exploration; Dismal Lakes, Northwest Territories, Canada

A field of uraniferous boulders was discovered in a drift-covered valley west of Dismal Lakes. Glacial geological information was combined with boulder location and trace element till geochemical data to model the dispersal of the boulders; and to predict their likely bedrock source. Uraniferous bedrock was eroded by the last, westward flowing glacial ice to cover the area. The debris was englacially transported and subsequently deposited during subglacial melt-out of ice block(s) stagnating below active ice. The distribution of the boulders forms acrude, westward-opening fan centred on the easternmost boulder and oriented with the last ice-flow direction. The largest uranium values from surface till samples (-2 μm fraction) occur 6.2 km east of the main boulder concentration or 1.5 km east of the first boulder occurrence. The likely bedrock source is 6.0 to 6.6 km east of the main boulder concentration.     

Geochemistry and evolution of the Wolf River Batholith,a late Precambrian Rapakivi Massif in North Wisconsin,U.S.A.

The Wolf River Batholith is an anorogenic rapakivi massif in central and northeastern Wisconsin with an age of 1.5 Ga. The Batholith has alkaline affinities and consists of biotite granite and biotite-hornblende adamellite with minor occurrences of quartz syenite and older monzonite and anorthosite. The batholith is part of a major Late Precambrian (1.4–1.5 Ga) magmatic event of continental proportions, represented by separate intrusions extending from Labrador to southern California (Silver et al., 1977).The major and trace element composition (Li, Rb, Sr, Ba, and REE) of 40 samples from the anorthosite, monzonite, and rapakivi granite and adamellite plutons precludes a comagmatic (although not cogenetic) model between all three rock units. However, the monzonite may be related to the anorthosite alone by fractional crystallization of plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and apatite. Alternatively, the monzonite may be a separate parent melt or a hybrid associated with the granite and adamellite plutons. The high REE content of the monzonite precludes it from being related to the rapakivi granite and adamellite plutons as a source material, a residuum, or a cumulate.A major portion of the Batholith is an undifferentiated intrusive sequence ranging from older rapakivi granite to younger adamellite. The compositions of these plutons suggest a crustal fusion origin at intermediate to lower levels of the crust (25–36 km). The trace element data are consistent with partial fusion of tonalitic to granodioritic source material.During crystallization and emplacement into the upper crust (less than 4 km), 55–70% fractionation of two feldspars, biotite and hornblende from one of the granite plutons produced a small volume of differentiated granitic melt high in Si, Fe/Mg, Rb, Li, and REE (except Eu), and low in Ca, Mg, Al, Ca/Na, Sr, Ba, and K/Rb and with a large negative Eu anomaly. Presumed associated cumulate material ranges from silica-poor quartz monzonite and quartz syenite.The chemical and mineralogical similarity between the Wolf River Batholith and younger magmatic analogs associated in continental break-up (Nigerian younger granites, White Mountain magma series, and the peralkaline volcanics of the Red Sea Region) are suggestive but not conclusive of an extensional tectonic setting. A preliminary tectonic model suggests that the 1.4–1.5 Ga event is in response to thermal doming in an extensional regime leading to continental separation in the western Cordillera (pre-Belt) and extensive crustal fusion with no rifting or separation across the North American Craton.     

Rare earth elements in granitic rocks

The younger granites in Finland contain more REE than the older ones. In the youngest, postorogenic rapakivi granites, the total REE concentration is highest, the light REE are more enriched, and the negative Eu anomaly is more pronounced than in the older granites. The enrichment of the light REE, the anomalous behavior of the extreme elements (La, Ce, and Lu) in normalized graphs, and the depletion of Eu indicate the degree of differentiation the rock has undergone. These features are usually more pronounced in large, homogeneous granites than in metamorphic or volcanogenic rocks. Silicic vein rocks usually contain less REE than the granites proper; the distribution pattern in many is as in granites, but in some the heavy elements are more enriched. The positive Eu anomaly in Precambrian metamorphic rocks is tentatively attributed to metamorphic differentiation and to the secretion of silicic material from the host rock.     

Rapakivi granites

Rapakivi granites, especially the famous rapakivis from southern Finland, are some of the most attractive building and decorative stones, used world-wide because of their striking textures and beautiful colours. But rapakivi granites are more than just building material, they have also been studied scientifically for over 100 years to try to explain the formation of their plagioclase-mantled alkali feldspar ovoids, the rapakivi feldspars which are responsible for the unique texture of the rock. Despite all the work which has been done on them, the formation of this distinctive texture is still not fully understood. Rapakivi granite complexes are not just a 'pretty face', they are also associated with important tin deposits in Rondônia and Amazonas in Brazil.     

Glacial dispersal studies using indicator minerals and till geochemistry around two eastern Finland kimberlites

Diamondiferous kimberlites occur in eastern Finland, in the areas of Kaavi–Kuopio and Kuhmo. Active diamond exploration has been ongoing in the country for over two decades, but the Karelian craton still remains under explored given its size and potential. In order to develop techniques that can be applied to diamond exploration in glaciated terrains, the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) carried out a detailed heavy mineral and geochemical survey of Quaternary till in 2001–2003 around two of the known kimberlitic bodies in Finland, Pipe 7 in Kaavi and Dyke 16 in Kuhmo. The mineralogical and geochemical signatures of these two kimberlites were studied in the basal till deposited down-ice from the targets. The kimberlites were selected to represent two different types in terms of shape, size, age and petrology, as well as showing contrasting country rocks and Quaternary deposits. Till samples up to 60 kg in weight were taken by excavator and by drill rig. Kimberlitic indicator mineral grains (0.25–1.0 mm) were concentrated using a GTK modified 3″Knelson Concentrator. Fine fractions (< 0.063 mm) of selected samples were analyzed by XRF and ICP-MS. The indicator grains down-ice from Pipe 7 form a well-defined fan in the basal till that can be followed for at least 2 km with a maximum concentration at 1.2 km distance from the pipe. Another kimberlitic body discovered during the study 300 m down-ice from Pipe 7 demonstrates that there are in fact at least two superimposed indicator fans. The results do not rule out the possibility of even more undiscovered kimberlitic sources in the area. In contrast, the indicator dispersal trail from Dyke 16 is shorter (1 km) and less well-defined than that at Kaavi, mainly due to the lower indicator content in the kimberlite itself and subsequently in till, as well as a large population of background chromites in till. The latter population is likely having been derived from the Archean Näätäniemi serpentinite massif and the associated ultramafic metavolcanics of the Kuhmo greenstone belt, located ca. 30 km up-ice from the sampling area. The indicator maximum at Seitaperä dyke swarm occurs immediately down-ice from the kimberlite, after which the concentration drops rapidly. Results of this study contribute to the overall understanding of the Quaternary history of the Kaavi and Kuhmo areas, and more importantly, provide key information to diamond exploration in these particular regions and also elsewhere in glaciated terrains.     

Basal till genesis in relation to bedrock morphology in the Berghem area, southwestern Sweden

Investigations of Late Weichselian deposits on the plateau north of Berghem, southwestern Sweden, constitute the basis for a detailed interpretation of basal tills above the marine limit. Deposition in relation to bedrock ridges perpendicular to ice flow occurred mainly on the stoss side. The content of locally derived bedrock increases with depth and the intensity of deformation within the ridge increases whengoing from the ice-proximal to the distal position. Drumlinoid features around a rock hillock suggest that the depositional behaviour on the stoss side was slightly different in the central part compared with the flanks. In the ice-proximal position the earliest deposition occurred in the centre of the drumlinoid, where the frequency of locally derived components is highest. The deformation in the central part was more intense than on the flank. The details of the till stratigraphy and structures cannot be attributed to one single process. Rather, an interaction of processes is proposed to account for this deposition. The processes involved are lodgement, basal melt-out, deformation and subglacial meltwater sedimentation.     

Origin of rapakivi granites by stochastic modeling: Vyborg and Salmi Massifs

Grain sequences of Precambrian rapakivi granites of the Vyborg and Salmi Massifs have been compared with the stochastic model for ideal granite. These sequences show that classical rapakivi granites correspond to metasomatically weakly altered granites with a simple loss of Markov transitions from quartz and plagioclase. Observed parameters of the model indirectly indicate rapakivi magma had small volatile content and large viscosity which is also characteristic of many other Precambrian granites.