孟加拉湾海洋划界案初步研究

孟加拉湾划界案是国际海洋法法庭审理的第一起海洋划界案。法庭对盂加拉国与缅甸的领海、专属经济区及大陆架的划界纠纷进行了裁决。分析研究了该案中法庭对这种大陆架案件的管辖权、当事国双方对这一区域的权利主张以及法庭划界采用的法律与划界的方法(等距离/相关情况方法)。     

自然延伸概念及相关地质要素在海域划界中的影响效力分析

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea entitled the coastal States to naturally extend the continental shelf, which has caused more drastic disputes of maritime delimitation. This paper devotes to clarifying the significant concept of natural prolongation through an effect method combing the legal principles and technical analysis. Firstly, the classic samples with respect of the development of geological features are traced. Based on these samples, the classification with a model is proposed in order to affirm the concept''s significance under certain geomorphologic situations. Lastly, scientific analysis is used to present two potential prolongation situations and emphasize that all the technical analysis on maritime delimitation should be complied with international law and protect the common interest of all the mankind.     

国际海洋边界划定与目前状况

本文简要描述了国际海洋边界划定与目前状况，其内容包括海洋边界划定，边界划定与海洋法，世界海洋区域及美国、俄罗斯划界概况和专属经济区与大陆架等问题。文章呼呈我国应加速海洋立法过程，尽快划出专属经济区与大陆架边界。     

Preliminary considerations on the potential influence of submarine fans on marine delimitation

The complex issues associated with marine delineation for the outer limit of continental shelf and the boundary delimitation have provoked considerable attention among researchers in a variety of academic circles, particularly in the juristic filed and the geo-science field. In the present contribution, we start from an overview of submarine fans, as one of common types of sediment-deposit bodies in the ocean, and ex- plore the related geological features which may be of relevance to the marine delimitation in accordance with the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. We carry out a comparative assessment of certain significant geological features of submarine fans, using the Bengal fan as an example, which is the biggest submarine fan in the world and represents an important factor in the maritime boundary dispute between the neighboring states currently. The relationship between the special geological bodies and the international principle in the 1982 United Nations Convention can be established by combining geological and juristic analyses. This preliminary observation on the effect of submarine bodies both on the marine entitlement and boundary delimitation indicates that it is important for the international society to appro- priately deal with this problem so that the marine right of any state can be protected.     

China's exclusive economic zone and continental shelf: developments,problems, and prospects

China promulgated its Law on the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf in 1998 after it had ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1996. By so doing, China has formally established a legal regime for its exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. However, China has much to do in implementing the above law. Domestically, it needs some detailed regulations for the implementation; and regionally China has to negotiate with its neighboring countries on the maritime boundary delimitation of the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf.     

大陆坡脚确定原则与方法

大陆坡脚是大陆边缘的一个重要地形特征,是沿海国扩展其大陆架权利和划定其200海里以外大陆架外部界限的基础,也是大陆架界限委员会审议沿海国划界案时特别关注的重要技术参数。《联合国海洋法公约》第76条大陆架制度的制定源于典型的被动大陆边缘。但由于全球大陆边缘的多样性和复杂性,特别是后期构造活动、沉积作用对大陆边缘的改造与影响,海底地形地貌异常复杂多变,导致大陆坡脚的识别非常困难。加上各沿海国为获得最大范围的外大陆架,对大陆坡脚的相关规定进行有利于自己的解释,使得大陆坡脚的确定成了外大陆架划界中一个颇具争议的热点问题。本文基于对《联合国海洋法公约》和《大陆架界限委员会科学和技术准则》对大陆坡脚的规定,结合不同类型大陆边缘的地质特征和各沿海国划界实践,对陆坡基部区的确定、坡度变化最大之点的选取以及相反证明规则的适用性等问题进行了探讨。     

Plate tectonics and offshore boundary delimitation: Tunisia-Libya case at the International Court of Justice

The first major offshore boundary dispute where plate tectonics constituted a significant argument was recently brought before the International Court of Justice by Libya and Tunisia concerning the delimitation of their continental shelves. Libya placed emphasis on this concept to determine natural prolongation of its land territory under the sea. Tunisia contested use of the entire African continental landmass as a reference unit and views geography, geomorphology and bathymetry as relevant as geology. The Court pronounced that “It is the outcome, not the evolution in the long-distant past, which is of importance.” Moreover, it is the present-day configuration of coasts and seabed that are the main factors, not geology.     

国际海洋划界技术发展与探讨

国际海洋划界的地理环境复杂，涉及学科多，既有法律问题也有技术方法问题。适用于海域划界的国际法原则有多种，在这些海域划界原则指手下涉及了多种因素，并形成了多种划界方法，这样必将使划界工作变得异常复杂。GIS、决策支持系统等技术的应用将在国际海洋划界的管理方面提供强有力的支持，并成为重要的决策工具。     

Australian practice in respect of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles

Australia׳s remote location and position on the vast Indo-Australian plate mean that possesses one of the largest continental shelf areas in the world. The criteria in Article 76 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea permit the claiming on continental shelf to 200 nautical miles from territorial sea baselines, and if certain criteria are met based on the configuration and content of the seabed, to distances beyond. During the negotiations at UNCLOS III, Australia was a strong proponent of this extended shelf regime, as it was likely to have large areas beyond 200 nautical miles. Article 76 provides for a number of requirements to be met for a coastal State to assert sovereign rights over areas of continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles, including a ten year deadline from becoming a party. This placed a disproportionate burden upon Australia, as it faced the same ten year time frame to lodge data with the Commission on the Limits on the Continental Shelf (CLCS) as other States with much smaller areas in issue. Australia also chose not to rely upon measures agreed between State parties to effectively extend this deadline, and to limit the requirements to be met within it. This paper looks at how Australian authorities approached the difficult task, while maintaining the standards required for data by the CLCS, and how the task was ultimately implemented. It also examines how the extended continental shelf arrangements interacted with the rest of Australia׳s law of the sea practice and maritime boundaries with other States. For example, after the entry into force of the Convention, Australia negotiated two maritime boundaries with neighbouring States that each explicitly dealt with areas beyond 200 nautical miles. It concludes with consideration of what issues remain unresolved in respect of the Australian continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles. The paper will conclude at how Australia׳s implementation has raised new issues with neighbouring States, including an unresolved dispute in the South Pacific Ocean.     

Maritime limits and boundaries

The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea is attempting to codify international law for the use of ocean space. While the process of negotiations continues and many political‐legal problems remain to be solved, certain issues appear to be at, or near, a stage of general agreement. A major element of the emerging consensus involves the “baseline,” the line from which all claims to zones of sovereignty or jurisdiction are measured. In addition, the Conference has generally accepted a breadth of 12 nautical miles for the sovereign territorial sea and 200 nautical miles for a coastal state zone of economic competence. An acceptable definition, in a legal sense, of the continental shelf seems to be provided. A major problem in the division of ocean space among States involves the delimitation of boundaries between adjacent States—those sharing a common land boundary—and opposite States—those situated so as to face each other across bodies of water. The issue remains divisive. The final treaty or convention, if successfully negotiated, will not, however, address technical issues. These important problems will have to be resolved by scientists and technicians concerned with the earth measurements in the post‐treaty era.     

It's Scotland's oil?: Hypothetical boundaries in the North Sea — a case study

The author explores the issues involved in the delimitation, in the event of Scotland gaining independence from the UK, of the boundaries of Scotland's continental shelf in the North Sea. The exploration involves an analysis of the rules of both international conventional law and international customary law, either of which might be applicable, depending on the policy adopted by an independent Scotland. Moreover, since it is possible that a new Caracas Convention on the Law of the Sea will emerge from UNCLOS III, the author also considers the latest version of the draft rules under discussion at the Conference.     

陆海分界和河海分界探讨

针对我国相关部门在实施<海域使用管理法>时,存在对管辖权认识不一致的情况,对焦点所在的海岸线确定、滩涂归属问题以及河海划界进行讨论.通过对国外沿海各国确定的海岸线现状的考察以及对国内涉海管理工作实践经验的分析,认为海岸线应为平均大潮高潮线.对于滩涂归属问题,由于国内现有法律对潮间带滩涂性质的确定存在矛盾,从两方面对潮间带滩涂性质进行分析.从滩涂本身特点来说,潮间带滩涂受海洋动力影响较大且与海洋联系密切,将其从海域管理工作中割裂出来,易造成海洋生态系统的严重损害.而从滩涂归属权国际实践来看,以平均高潮线为海岸线的国家大多将潮间带滩涂归属于海域.因此认为高潮线以下滩涂应属海域,并提出3点建议:(1) 基于国内滩涂使用与支配事实的历史成因,建议监督和管理功能分由两个部门负责,海洋部门起监督作用,仍由原来沿海各省主管滩涂开发的部门开发滩涂,这样也有利于滩涂开发管理的持续性和滩涂资源的保护;(2) 对于海域使用许可权,建议采用多项许可证制度,既避免主管部门滥用行政权力,损害其他部门的利益,同时也使开发利用项目得到周密的审查,避免其对海洋生态、海洋环境产生不利影响;(3) 在审批权限方面,考虑各省滩涂自然条件不一、经济发展重点不一的情况并借鉴国际实践,建议适当扩大地方政府和地方海洋管理部门对海域管理的权限.河海分界是海岸线确定的难点.对于河海分界问题,认为河海划界是社会行为,是对在河海交汇区域里的管理行为及其职责、义务的分类和界定,应满足遵守自然客观规律、有利于社会稳定团结和资源可持续发展以及综合考虑多方面因素这3项原则.从3方面讨论了河口的归属问题.并建议主要江河的河海界线以河口口门和口外海滨段的内端为界,即河口的近口段和河口段应属河,河口的口外海滨段属海.在一些小的入海河流可以明显的标志物(如挡潮闸、桥等)作为河海分界线.     

Rockall and the limits of national jurisdiction of the UK: Part 2

Part 1 of this article, published in the July issue of Marine Policy, contained the first in a four-section examination of the Rockall question. Section I presented a survey of the law governing the delimitation of the continental shelf, the EEZ, and exclusive fishing zones, thus providing a background for sections II–IV, which constitute Part 2. In this Part, the author examines the geography and geology of the Rockall sector and the claims made by the UK, Ireland and Denmark, before drawing conclusions from the whole article.     

基于D-P算法和最优路径的海山地理实体边界划定方法

海底地理实体的划定与命名是当前国际海洋权益领域的热点研究问题之一。然而,由于海底地理实体边界的量化界定技术缺乏,导致其界线确定不可避免地存在人为性,为此,本文提出了一种基于D-P算法和最优路径的海底地理实体边界划定方法。将高分辨率水深模型转换为二维水深矩阵,从横向与纵向进行剖面分析,采用极值点简化和D-P算法进行二次简化的方法,通过坡度变化定位和基部高程定位等基本条件综合判断,从而实现了单体海山的山体与其基部的自动划分;在此基础上,采用路径寻优的方法实现了连体型海山的自动分割。该方法在南海海底地理实体划定中进行了验证,取得了良好的应用效果。     

Canada and the law of the sea

This is a historical review of Canadian policy at the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea. Canadian objectives with regard to the territorial sea, fisheries, pollution prevention and the continental shelf are outlined and the role played by the Canadian delegation at UNCLOS is described. The article then examines the impact of the Convention on Canada, particular attention being paid to the Canadian Exclusive Economic Zone and the Canadian role in the controversy over seabed mining. The author concludes by arguing that Canada was a major beneficiary of the Convention, but that US opposition has placed the future of the Convention in jeopardy.     

The contribution of fisheries access agreements to flag State responsibility

On 2 April 2015, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) rendered an advisory opinion in which it held that Articles 58(3), 62(4), 94(2), 192 of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) laid down a responsibility of flag States for fishing activities undertaken by private actors in the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of coastal States. In interpreting these provisions of UNCLOS, the ITLOS made reference to specific clauses in fisheries access agreements (FAAs) concluded by coastal States and flag States. This article examines in more detail the contribution of FAAs to the concept of flag State responsibility. It will first offer a brief discussion of the framework for fisheries access under national jurisdiction provided by UNCLOS and will then take a closer look at how certain provisions contained in FAAs have contributed –and could contribute in the future– to the concept of flag State responsibility in international fisheries law. The article concludes that FAAs have contributed significantly to the development of the concept of flag State responsibility for fishing activities in the past and may do so to a more limited extent in the future.     

大陆架界限委员会审议划界案的原则和方法——委员会建议摘要案例分析

由于全球大陆边缘地貌和地质特征的复杂性,且《联合国海洋法公约》(以下简称《公约》)第76条对200海里以外大陆架外部界限划定的规则存在一定的模糊性,导致大陆架外部界限的划定极其复杂。根据《公约》设立的大陆架界限委员会(以下简称委员会)负责审议沿海国提交的划界案并给出建议,委员会在外大陆架划界方面发挥重要作用。截止2012年12月底,委员会一共收到沿海国65份划界案,目前已完成其中18份划界案的审议工作并给出了建议。本文系统分析了各委员会建议摘要,对委员会在审议划界案时采用的划界原则、审议的关键技术问题等做了综合分析总结,以便为我国今后外大陆架划界和积极应对侵害我国海洋权益的他国划界主张提供参考和借鉴。     

论证南海海疆国界线

追溯探查历史图件,根据1946年内政部方域司编制的一组"南海诸岛位置图"(南海诸岛位置图,南沙群岛,中沙群岛,西沙群岛,西沙群岛永兴岛及石岛,南沙群岛太平岛)和1948年出版的"中华民国行政区域图"分析,南海诸岛外围的断续线段是我国在南海的海疆国界线;当时划定,是与陆域国界相连的,海上国界是陆域国界的延伸,以断续线段表示是国际地图上对海疆国界线通用的表示方法,当时即获国际认可。上述结果为南海划界提供了科学依据。     

Australian maritime boundaries: the Australian Antarctic Territory

Australia will include the Australian Antarctic Territory in its November 2004 submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. It is the first Claimant State to attempt delimitation of an extended continental shelf zone there. This paper investigates the complexity of Australia's Antarctic maritime boundaries from political, legal and practical perspectives that have hitherto been purely hypothetical. It concludes that the practical component is achievable, though complex, and will serve as a precedent for other Antarctic Claimant States. Irrespective of whether or not the submission succeeds, it will serve as a valuable lesson, legally and politically.     

Response to Liu's comments on “The Kuroshio intermediate water is the major source of nutrients on the East China Sea continental shelf” by Chen (1996)

Exchanges between the East China Sea (ECS) and the Kuroshio have been recalculated by taking into consideration the intra-annual variation of salinity on the shelf. Flux through the Taiwan Strait, previously unavailable data in the Yellow Sea and in the central and northern ECS, denitrification and ground water fluxes are now also considered. The Kuroshio Intermediate Water remains the major source of nutrients on the East China Sea continental shelf, with slightly more upwelling in the dry season than in the wet season.