大兴安岭北段宜里地区早侏罗世二长花岗岩U-Pb年龄、地球化学特征及其构造意义

本文对大兴安岭北段宜里地区二长花岗岩进行了系统的地球化学及锆石U-Pb同位素年代学研究,旨在查明其成岩时代及岩石成因,并探讨其构造意义。宜里地区二长花岗岩中的锆石均呈半自形—自形,振荡生长环带明显,暗示其岩浆成因。锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb同位素定年结果显示,宜里地区二长花岗岩形成于175.8~174.5 Ma,为早侏罗世岩浆事件的产物。岩石具有富硅（SiO2=71.23%~74. 52%）、富碱更富钾（Na2O+K2O=6.31%~8.31%,K2O=2.58%~4.78%）、贫镁（MgO=0.43%~1.50%）、贫钙（CaO=0.91%~1.81%）的特征,铝饱和指数（A/CNK=0.97~1.16）,属于准铝质—弱过铝质高钾钙碱性花岗岩。富集Rb、Th、K等大离子亲石元素,相对亏损Nb、Ta等高场强元素和P、Ti等元素,轻重稀土元素分馏较强（La/Yb）N=14.07~50.34,无明显Eu异常（δEu=0.88~1.71）。花岗岩熔体的锆石饱和温度（714~745℃）明显低于A型花岗岩（＞800℃）,显示出高分异I型花岗岩的特征。岩石学及地球化学特征表明,宜里地区二长花岗岩的形成与俯冲形成的上涌热流加热新增生下地壳发生部分熔融有关。结合区域构造演化及构造判别,认为研究区早侏罗世二长花岗岩形成于蒙古—鄂霍茨克大洋板片南向俯冲作用相关的活动大陆边缘环境。     

延边和龙地区早侏罗世花岗岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄、地球化学特征及成因意义

吉林省延边朝鲜族自治州和龙地区早侏罗世花岗岩广泛出露,LA- ICP- MS锆石U- Pb定年结果显示其形成于195. 2±1. 3 Ma。地球化学特征表明花岗岩具有高硅（SiO2=73. 83%~75. 55%）、富碱（Na2O+K2O=7. 63%~8. 37%）、富铝（Al2O3=13. 15%~14. 25%）、贫镁、贫钙（MgO=0. 22%~0. 43%,CaO=0. 87%~1. 41%）的特征,属于高钾钙碱性系列,岩石稀土总量不高(ΣREE=106. 60×10-6~127. 8×10-6),轻稀土分馏系数(La/Sm)N=5. 71~11. 25,重稀土分馏系数(Gd/Yb)N=1. 48~2. 37,Eu为中等负异常（δEu=0. 42~0. 76）,微量元素以富集LREE、Rb、Th、U、K,强烈亏损Sr、P、Ti为特征,指示为壳源岩浆,在构造图解几乎全部落入火山弧花岗岩区,显示可能形成于活动大陆边缘环境。结合延边太平岭地区出现的早侏罗世花岗岩组合到小兴安岭—张广才岭所报道早侏罗世花岗岩及双峰式火山岩组合,共同构成了平行洋壳的俯冲方向的成分极性,表明了俯冲方向,反映了在早侏罗世期间古太平洋板块对我国东北地区北北西方向俯冲的渐进过程。     

新疆东昆仑木孜塔格地区碎石沟花岗岩锆石 U-Pb年龄、岩石地球化学特征及地质意义

碎石沟花岗岩体位于东昆仑造山带西段木孜塔格地区,是该地区几个主要花岗岩体之一。为了查明该岩体的成因类型、物质来源及形成时代,并在此基础上进一步探讨木孜塔格地区的区域构造演化过程及东昆仑造山带地球动力学背景,对该岩体进行了详细的岩石学、地球化学及锆石U- Pb年代学研究。岩石学特征表明,碎石沟花岗岩主要由灰白色中细粒二长花岗岩组成,在岩体边部可见少量灰白色花岗闪长岩。岩石地球化学研究表明,该岩体具有高硅（SiO2=67.54 %~71.56 %）、高碱（Na2O=3.08%~4.50%、K2O=3.05%~4.20%）、富铝的特点（Al2O3=14.26%~16.58%）,属于准铝质—弱过铝质高钾钙碱性系列;稀土元素含量较高（126.31×10-6~160.13×10-6）,总体表现出轻稀土富集,重稀土亏损的右倾式配分模式,具有Eu的弱负异常（δEu=0.68~0.85）;微量元素相对富集Rb、Th、K等大离子亲石元素,亏损Nb、Ta、Hf、Sr等高场强元素,显示出 I 型花岗岩的特征。本次研究获得碎石沟岩体二长花岗岩的锆石U- Pb年龄为208.0±1.1 Ma（MSWD=1.0）,属于晚三叠世岩浆活动产物。结合区域构造演化特征,碎石沟花岗岩来源于下地壳物质部分熔融,并且在形成过程中存在幔源岩浆底侵及壳幔岩浆混合作用,其构造背景为后碰撞环境。     

新疆东昆仑木孜塔格地区碎石沟花岗岩锆石U-Pb年代学、岩石地球化学特征及地质意义

碎石沟花岗岩体位于东昆仑造山带西段木孜塔格地区,是该地区几个主要花岗岩体之一。为了查明该岩体的成因类型、物质来源及形成时代,并在此基础上进一步探讨木孜塔格地区的区域构造演化过程及东昆仑造山带地球动力学背景,对该岩体进行了详细的岩石学、地球化学及锆石U-Pb年代学研究。岩石学特征表明,碎石沟花岗岩主要由灰白色中细粒二长花岗岩组成,在岩体边部可见少量灰白色花岗闪长岩。岩石地球化学研究表明,该岩体具有高硅（SiO2=67.54 %~71.56 %）、高碱（Na2O=3.08%~4.50%、K2O=3.05%~4.20%）、富铝的特点（Al2O3=14.26%~16.58%）,属于准铝质—弱过铝质高钾钙碱性系列;稀土元素含量较高（126.31×10-6~160.13×10-6）,总体表现出轻稀土富集,重稀土亏损的右倾式配分模式,具有Eu的弱负异常（δEu=0.68~0.85）;微量元素相对富集Rb、Th、K等大离子亲石元素,亏损Nb、Ta、Hf、Sr等高场强元素,显示出 I 型花岗岩的特征。本次研究获得碎石沟岩体二长花岗岩的锆石U- Pb年龄为208.0±1.1 Ma（MSWD=1.0）,属于晚三叠世岩浆活动产物。结合区域构造演化特征,碎石沟花岗岩来源于下地壳物质部分熔融,并且在形成过程中存在幔源岩浆底侵及壳幔岩浆混合作用,其构造背景为后碰撞环境。     

西准噶尔乌尔喀什尔山库鲁木苏序列A型花岗岩地球化学特征及地质意义

西准噶尔乃至整个北疆地区广泛发育晚古生代后碰撞花岗岩类。作为其中的一部分,乌尔喀什尔山一带库鲁木苏岩基中的库鲁木苏序列主要由二长花岗岩、细粒正长花岗岩、中粗粒正长花岗岩、碱长花岗岩和碱长花岗斑岩组成。该序列富硅(Si O2=70.78%~76.85%)、富碱(K2O+Na2O=7.87%~9.71%)、低钛(Ti O2=0.08%~0.41%)、贫钙(Ca O=0.16%~1.42%),为准铝质至强过铝质(ACNK=0.98~1.15);稀土元素配分曲线为典型的"V"字型,具有明显的负Eu异常;微量元素特征显示富集大离子亲石元素(Rb、Th、K)及高场强元素(Zr、Hf),而强烈亏损Ba、Sr、P、Eu和Ti。以上特征表明库鲁木苏序列为A2型花岗岩,结合区域构造演化,认为库鲁木苏序列形成于后碰撞环境。     

江西武功山早古生代花岗岩的岩石学、锆石U- Pb和Lu—Hf同位素地球化学特征及其地质意义

武功山造山带位于华夏地块与扬子地块碰撞缝合带南侧,记录了新元古代以来的多次构造运动。本文对其中的黑云母二长花岗岩和二云母二长花岗岩进行了全面的矿物学、岩石地球化学、锆石U- Pb同位素年代学及Lu—Hf同位素研究。LA- ICP- MS锆石U- Pb同位素年代学研究指示武功山黑云母二长花岗岩和二云母二长花岗岩结晶于早志留世（441. 6~442. 2 Ma）。武功山早志留世花岗岩具有富硅（SiO2含量为67. 43%~73. 06%）、富碱（Na2O+K2O含量为6. 47%~8. 46%）、贫钙（CaO=0. 78%~2. 64%）、贫镁（MgO=0. 46%~1. 61%）等特征,为强过铝质高钾钙碱性花岗岩（A/CNK=1. 09~1. 35）。同时,岩相学和地球化学指示岩石属于亚碱性系列,分异程度较低,ΣREE较低,轻重稀土分异程度较高,为S型花岗岩且岩浆源区物相为角闪石+斜长石+石榴子石。结合花岗岩锆石fLu/Hf 值均小于-0. 9,εHf（t）均为负值（-6. 7到-4. 8）,指示岩浆来源于古元古代古老陆壳物质,形成于陆内造山构造背景下,为武功山地区对武夷—云开造山运动的响应。     

南祁连北缘东段早志留世刚察大寺花岗岩的成因——锆石LA-ICP-MSU-Pb年代学和岩石地球化学制约

南祁连北缘东段刚察大寺花岗岩的形成时代和成因一直存在争议。本文对其进行了锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年代学和岩石地球化学研究,进而约束其岩石成因和形成的构造背景。结果表明,刚察大寺花岗岩主要由花岗闪长岩和黑云母二长花岗岩组成;花岗闪长岩中锆石自形程度较好,阴极发光图像显示振荡生长环带,具有较高的Th/U比值(0.27~0.91),表明其为岩浆成因;最小一组岩浆锆石的206Pb/238U加权平均年龄为(435±4)Ma,即岩体形成于早志留世;花岗闪长岩和黑云母二长花岗岩具有类似的地球化学属性,主量元素具有高硅、富碱、富铝和贫镁的特征,其Si O2=65.52%~74.23%、(K2O+Na2O)=6.95%~8.24%、Al2O3=12.33%~15.26%、Mg O=0.31%~1.32%,A/CNK介于0.85~1.05之间,为准铝质-弱过铝质的亚碱性系列岩石;整体富集轻稀土元素和大离子亲石元素(Rb、Ba、K)、亏损重稀土元素和高场强元素(Nb、Ta),具有Eu的负异常(δEu=0.51~0.80)和Sr、P、Ti的明显亏损。南祁连北缘东段刚察大寺花岗岩为I型花岗岩,起源于高温低压条件下中、上地壳物质的部分熔融,结合区域构造演化暗示,刚察大寺早志留世花岗岩形成于活动大陆边缘的构造背景。     

浙东地区东园花岗岩体年代学、地球化学特征及其地质意义

浙东地区岩浆岩广泛分布,受区域构造控制较明显,总体沿北东向余姚-丽水断裂带分布。本文对东园花岗岩体开展了详细的年代学和岩石地球化学研究。东园岩体主要由二长花岗岩、石英二长岩和少量花岗岩组成,主岩体二长花岗岩的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为235.6±0.7 Ma(MSWD=0.97,2σ),花岗岩为238.1±0.8 Ma(MSWD=1.3,2σ),均属中三叠世产物。二长花岗岩和石英二长岩为准铝质-弱过铝质的钙碱性花岗岩,具高硅(62.94%~75.29%)、富碱(Na_2O+K_2O=8.17%~9.34%)且富钾(K_2O=4.54%~5.63%)的特征,轻重稀土分馏明显,具有较强的Eu正异常(δEu=0.94~2.43),明显亏损高场强元素(HFSE)Nb、P、Ti,而相对富集Th、Hf,富集轻稀土元素(LREE)和大离子亲石元素(LILE)Rb,相对贫Ba。岩体属高(-中等)分异I型花岗岩,岩浆来源于具弧属性的加厚地壳部分熔融,形成于同碰撞向后碰撞阶段转变的大地构造环境,可能与太平洋板块向华南板块俯冲作用事件有关。     

西藏墨竹工卡地区早侏罗世花岗岩地球化学、岩石成因及其地质意义

为了研究南冈底斯晚三叠世-早侏罗世时期岩浆岩的成因类型和构造背景，针对墨竹工卡地区的松多黑云母二长花岗岩体进行岩相学、年代学、全岩地球化学研究.LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年结果显示，松多黑云母二长花岗岩结晶年龄为190.2±2.9 Ma，形成于早侏罗世.在地球化学组成上，黑云母二长花岗岩具有低TiO₂（0.68%~0.75%），富SiO₂（65.22%~66.13%）、Al₂O₃（16.26%~16.73%）、Na₂O（4.05%~4.29%）、K₂O（3.96%~4.24%）的特点，显示钾玄岩系列和弱过铝质（A/CNK=1.04~1.11）的主量元素地球化学特征；在微量元素蛛网图上，具有富集Rb、Th、K、Zr、Hf元素和亏损Ba、Nb、Ta、Sr、Ti、P元素的特征；锆石饱和温度介于805~835℃，FeOT/MgO比值高，样品显示出具有部分A型花岗岩特征.结合前人研究表明，晚三叠世-早侏罗世时期南冈底斯岩浆岩构造背景与新特提斯洋北向俯冲有关，松多黑云母二长花岗岩形成于新特提斯洋板片北向俯冲引起的弧后伸展环境；其成因与软流圈上涌导致幔源岩浆底侵引起下地壳的部分熔融有关.      

冈底斯西段萨果花岗岩地球化学和年代学特征及其地质意义

萨果花岗岩位于冈底斯西段中、南亚带交界位置,主要岩石类型有二长花岗岩和花岗闪长斑岩,岩石总体上富Si,K,贫Mg,Ca,w(Si O2)=64.84%~70.1%,w(K2O)/w(Na2O)=1.21~1.75,A/CNK=0.99~1.2,w(Al2O3)介于14.48%~15.52%,属过铝质岩石,稀土总量(ΣREE)变化范围为256.1×10~(-6)~428.8×10~(-6),LREE/HREE>10,轻稀土富集,δEu=0.77~0.85,弱的铕负异常。Rb、Th和K等大离子亲石元素富集,而Ba、U和Ta等高场强元素亏损。岩石学特征表明岩石总体上具岛弧花岗岩特征,仅少数岩石显示碰撞花岗岩的特点,结合区域花岗岩浆演化和构造环境等地质背景,推断萨果花岗岩体可能形成于俯冲向同碰撞的过渡环境。二长花岗岩的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为(88.6±1.5)Ma。萨果花岗岩是新特提斯洋向北俯冲的产物,表明印亚大陆碰撞起始时间晚于88.6 Ma。     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.