西藏措勤县诺仓地区塔吉里霞隆花岗闪长岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄与地球化学特征

塔吉里霞隆花岗闪长岩体位于冈底斯构造岩浆岩带西段,拉萨地块中西部。岩石w(SiO_2)=63.38%~72.56%;w(Al_2O_3)=13.85%~15.73%;Alk(K_2O+Na_2O)=5.12%~6.79%;w(K_2O)/w(Na_2O)=0.67~1.32;A/CNK=0.90~1.02,属Ⅰ型弱过铝质高钾钙碱性系列。稀土总量∑REE=128.34×10~(-6)~167.25×10~(-6),LREE/HREE=6.94~10.73,轻稀土富集重稀土亏损,配分曲线呈右倾型;δEu=0.69~0.86,弱负铕异常。岩石具有富集Rb、Th、K等大离子亲石元素,而亏损Ba、U、Nb、P等高场强元素的特征,岩石显示出岛弧火山岩亲缘性。锆石U@b定年结果表明,塔吉里霞隆岩体主要侵位于126.3±1.1Ma,属早白垩世晚期。塔吉里霞隆花岗闪长岩显示出壳幔混合源特征,班公湖-怒江洋壳岩石圈的南向俯冲和随后发生的板片回转可以较好的解释岩体成因。     

中祁连西段野马山岩基年代学、地球化学特征及地质意义

野马山岩基位于中祁连地块西段,由早期岩体(花岗闪长岩、斑状二长花岗岩)和晚期岩体(二长花岗岩)组成,二者呈侵入接触。LA-ICPMS锆石U-Pb定年表明,早期岩体侵位时代为中奥陶世((469.0±1.3)Ma),晚期岩体侵位时代为晚奥陶世((450.0±1.0)Ma)。早期岩体Si O2=59.8%~64.2%,K2O/Na2O1,且A/NKC=0.8~1.0,为准铝质岩石;微量元素相对富集Rb、U、Th和亏损Ba、Nb、Ta、Sr、P、Ti;稀土总量为97.7×10-6~185×10-6,且(La/Yb)N=5.57~12.47,LREE/HREE=7.7~11.3,具轻重稀土分馏明显,轻稀土富集,弱Eu负异常(δEu=0.66~0.89)特征。晚期岩体Si O2=69.8%~76.5%、K2O/Na2O=1.2~1.7、A/NKC=1.0~1.1,属弱过铝质花岗岩;稀土总量为78.97×10-6~244.92×10-6,轻重稀土分馏不明显((La/Yb)N=1.90~5.72),强Eu负异常(δEu=0.11~0.24)。岩石地球化学特征表明,野马山岩基早期岩体为I型花岗岩,形成于俯冲环境,晚期岩体为高分异的I型花岗岩,形成于后碰撞环境。结合岩体产出的区域构造位置及区域地质演化,认为早古生代北祁连洋发生了双向俯冲,野马山岩基为其向南俯冲碰撞的产物。     

北祁连山中段北大坂岩体成因及构造环境讨论

运用岩石学的研究方法对出露于北祁连造山带中段北大坂一带的北大坂岩体进行岩石及元素分析结果表明:其岩性为斑状粗粒二长花岗岩、粗中粒二长花岗岩及中细粒二长花岗岩,含少量黑云母、角闪石及榍石,属钾质钙碱性花岗岩类;主量元素w(SiO2)=63.66%～74.38%,w(K2O)/w(Na2O)=2.61～3.31,总体为高钾钙碱性弱过铝质花岗岩,岩石富集LILE元素(Rb,Th,K等),亏损HFSE元素(Y,Yb,Ta,Nb等),稀土元素分配模式为轻稀土富集型,具中等负Eu异常(δEu=0.59～0.82)。微量、稀土元素分配模式与北祁连西段的金佛寺岩体(碰撞型花岗岩)基本一致。单颗粒锆石U-Pb年龄为414Ma±4Ma,综合分析认为北大坂岩体形成于同碰撞末-后碰撞初期的构造转换期,岩浆源区为下地壳。     

东昆仑热水二长花岗岩地球化学特征、年代学及其构造意义

为探讨东昆仑热水地区花岗岩岩石成因及其构造意义,对热水二长花岗岩进行了年代学和地球化学研究。结果表明,热水二长花岗岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为231±1Ma,为晚三叠世;具有高硅(Si O2为68.74%~71.69%)、高铝(Al2O3为14.78%~15.18%)、富钾贫钠(K2O/Na2O为1.05~1.32,K2O含量为3.78%~4.32%)特点,其里特曼指数为1.87~2.21,A/CNK为1.03~1.07,属于高钾钙碱性弱过铝质岩石系列;其ΣREE为118.28×10-6~148.1×10-6,LREE/HREE为15.05~16.53,具有轻稀土富集、重稀土亏损的右倾配分模式,富集Rb、Ba、Th等大离子亲石元素以及LREE,相对亏损Nb、Ta、P、Ti等高场强元素,具有Ⅰ型花岗岩特征,表明岩石源区可能为俯冲板片或下地壳基性岩部分熔融产物,并混入幔源物质,具有壳幔混合成因特点,结合区域地质背景,认为热水二长花岗岩形成壳幔相互作用、碰撞-后碰撞的构造背景。     

河南南召水洞岭矿区石英角斑岩岩石化学特征

在野外地质工作基础上,运用岩石地球化学方法,通过主量元素、稀土元素和微量元素研究,探讨了水洞岭矿区石英角斑岩的岩石化学特征、形成环境及其与成矿的关系。研究表明:石英角斑岩的w(SiO2)=73.11%~79.30%,w(K2O)=1.20%~5.99%,w(Na_2O)=1.57%~4.61%,w(K_2O+Na_2O)=4.82%~8.67%,Na_2O/K_2O=0.45~3.49,ACNK=0.99~1.25。稀土元素总量w(ΣREE)=70.19×10~(-6)~198.75×10~(-6),轻稀土元素富集,重稀土元素亏损,轻重稀土元素分馏明显((La/Yb)N=3.65~8.20),Eu中度至轻度亏损(δEu=0.53~0.96);大离子亲石元素(Rb、Ba、Th、U、K)和Pb等元素富集,高场强元素(Nb、Ta、Ti、P)和Sr等元素亏损。综合表明水洞岭矿区石英角斑岩形成环境类似于洋壳俯冲成因的火山弧环境。     

扬子板块北缘光雾山地区钾长花岗岩年代学、地球化学特征及构造意义

为了限定扬子板块北缘地区新元古代岩浆活动事件的准确时间及和探讨岩石成因,本文对出露于四川省南江县光雾山钾长花岗岩进行了LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年和岩石地球化学研究。结果表明光雾山地区钾长花岗岩锆石U-Pb年龄为836.3Ma±8.3Ma,属于新元古代花岗岩。岩石具有高w(SiO2)(72.68%~78.10%),w(K2O)(4.26%~5.32%),w(Na2O)(1.68%~3.38%),相对富钾(K2O/Na2O=1.12~2.54),高碱(w(Na2O+K2O)=7.64%~8.99%),低P2O5含量等特征,铝饱和指数A/CNK=0.99~1.49,光雾山花岗岩属于过铝质高钾钙碱性花岗岩。岩石具有轻稀土元素相对富集,重稀土元素亏损的特征,具有明显Eu负异常,δEu为0.48~0.73。光雾山花岗岩微量元素表现出Rb,Th,K,Nd,Sm元素富集,Ba,Nb,Ta,Sr,P,Ti元素亏损的特点。地球化学研究表明,光雾山钾长花岗岩主要以粘土岩部分熔融为主及少部分含粘土的变质杂砂岩部分熔融形成的。岩浆可能来源于本区结晶基底新太古界-古元古界后河岩群和褶皱基底中-新元古界火地亚群中深变质岩为代表的地壳物质的部分熔融产物,为壳源成因类型,具有岛弧型花岗岩特征,形成于岛弧构造环境。光雾山钾长花岗岩的形成是新元古界时期扬子板块与华北板块之间的俯冲碰撞、岛弧形成构造演化过程中使区域地壳不断加厚和地壳深融作用的响应。扬子陆块北缘南江地区约836Ma同碰撞岛弧型钾长花岗岩的发现,表明该地区在约836Ma时为Rodinia超大陆汇聚形成阶段,此时期该区Rodinia超大陆尚未进入大陆裂解阶段。     

内蒙古正镶白旗地区早古生代O型埃达克岩的厘定及其意义

内蒙古正镶白旗地区新民岩体主要岩石类型为二长花岗岩。两个二长花岗岩样品给出(457±11) Ma和(423.1±9.9) Ma的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄值,两年龄样品中均存在>1 000 Ma的年龄值,说明该区存在古老的结晶基底或微陆块。岩石具有高Si(w(SiO2)=73.52%~74.68%>56%)、富Al(w(Al2O3)=14.31%~15.26%)、富Na(w(Na2O)=3.82%~5.25%,Na2O/K2O值为1.26~2.5)、低Mg(w(MgO)=0.29%~0.39%<3%)的特点。较高的Sr含量((435.4~719.7)×10-6>400×10-6),较低的Y((3.46~4.81)×10-6<18×10-6)和Yb((0.38~0.48)×10-6<1.9×10-6)含量;较大的Sr/Y值(103.54~177.09>40)。稀土元素总量较低(∑REE：(20.98~40.79)×10-6),轻重稀土分馏明显((La/Yb)N：8.32~16.90),具有正铕异常(δEu：1.18~2.20)。在原始地幔标准化蛛网图中,富集LILE(Ba、K、Sr、Rb),亏损HFSE(Th、U、Nb、Ta、P、Ti),为O型埃达克岩。结合区域地质背景,新民岩体的形成指示古亚洲洋向华北板块俯冲消减事件。     

北秦岭宝鸡地区早志留世鸡冠崖高分异碰撞型花岗岩年龄、地球化学特征及地质意义

对北秦岭宝鸡地区鸡冠崖花岗岩进行了LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年代学和岩石地球化学研究。结果显示,锆石206Pb/238Pb加权平均年龄为(435±2)Ma(MSWD=0.13,n=22),限定该岩体的形成时代为早志留世。鸡冠崖花岗岩具有高硅(w(SiO2)=72.77%~77.71%)、富钾(w(K2O)=3.51%~6.32%)、低铁(w(Fe2OT3)=0.71%~1.30%,Fe2OT3/MgO=2.71~7.29)、低镁(w(MgO)=0.14%~0.31%)、低磷(w(P2O5)=0.05%~0.10%)的特征,A/CNK=0.94~1.10,AR=2.95~4.10,属准铝质至弱过铝质、钙碱性系列。鸡冠崖花岗岩稀土元素质量分数较低(32×10-6~102×10-6),铕异常明显(δEu=0.22~13.83),富集Rb、U、Th、Nd、Zr、Hf等微量元素,贫Ba、Nb、P、Ti等元素,分异程度较高(DI=89~93),整体表现出高分异I型花岗岩特征。结合区域资料,认为鸡冠崖花岗岩形成于同碰撞构造环境,为下地壳物质部分熔融成因。     

南秦岭唐家沟英云闪长岩年代学及岩石地球化学特征

南秦岭马道地区唐家沟英云闪长岩主要由石英、斜长石、钾长石、黑云母及少量角闪石等组成。地球化学特征表明,岩体w(SiO_2)介于59.23%~65.74%,w(K_2O)=1.53%~6.57%,w(Na_2O)=3.69%~5.81%,里特曼指数σ除一个样品外均小于4,属钙碱性花岗岩系列。w(Al_2O_3)=15.37%~18.37%,A/CNK介于0.90~1.02,A/NK介于1.39~1.70,属准铝-过铝质花岗岩。w(FeO)=1.58%~3.97%,w(Fe_2O_3)=1.35%~2.42%,w(MgO)=1.08%~3.11%,w(TiO_2)=0.50%~0.84%,w(P_2O_5)=0.14%~0.30%。稀土元素含量为128.11×10~(-6)~152.39×10~(-6),相对富集轻稀土(LREE=112.24×10~(-6)~145.15×10~(-6)),亏损重稀土(HREE=7.08×10~(-6)~15.87×10~(-6))。LREE/HREE为7.07~20.50,(La/Yb)_N值为6.88~44.26,样品不具有明显的Eu异常(δEu=0.68~0.96)和Ce异常(δCe=0.83~0.93)。样品富集大离子亲石元素(Rb,Th,U等)、强烈亏损高场强元素(Nb,Ta,Ti),类似于钙碱性火山弧花岗岩的地球化学特征。阴极发光CL图像显示岩体锆石具有核-边结构,结合锆石原位微量元素研究认为,核部锆石为继承下来的原岩锆石,时代为(810 Ma±4.8 Ma),而边部锆石为深熔锆石,年龄为(205 Ma±2.6 Ma)。结合前人资料,认为唐家沟英云闪长岩形成于新元古代秦岭洋俯冲阶段,在晚三叠世秦岭洋闭合期间该岩体受到再次改造。     

内蒙古东乌旗巴彦都兰二长花岗岩年代学、地球化学特征及其地质意义

为了解晚古生代西伯利亚板块南缘增生造山过程中的岩浆活动特征,对东乌旗巴彦都兰二长花岗岩岩相学、锆石U-Pb年代学、锆石Hf同位素和岩石地球化学进行了研究,并讨论了岩石成因和构造环境。锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年结果为(277.2±0.7)Ma,以正的锆石εHf(t)(6.8~14.1)为特征,具有年轻的锆石地壳模式年龄(tcDM)(865~655 Ma),属于早二叠世晚期岩浆活动产物。二长花岗岩以高钾[w(K)=3.63%~4.95%,K2O/Na2O=0.91~1.47]、富碱[w(K2O+Na2O)=7.52%~9.16%]、准铝质-弱过铝质(A/CNK=0.96~1.15)为特征;稀土元素总量较低(38.82×10-6~193.20×10-6),(La/Yb)N为3.91~23.08,轻、重稀土元素分异较明显,呈弱负铕异常(δEu为0.34~1.17);富集部分大离子亲石元素(LREE、Rb、K等);Zr弱负异常、Hf弱正异常,亏损Sr、Nb、Ta、P、Ti,显示后造山花岗岩特征。综合分析表明,巴彦都兰二长花岗岩形成于伸展的构造环境中,是贺根山洋盆闭合后的后造山阶段产物,为865~655 Ma前洋壳俯冲形成的先成地壳部分熔融而成。     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Pools,riffles, and channelization

The addition of regularly spaced deeps (pools) and shallows (riffles) that provide a variety of flow conditions, areal sorting of stream-bed material, cover for wildlife, and a positive aesthetic experience, may be desirable in many channel projects. Such designs will reduce adverse environmental impacts of stream channel modifications. Analysis of variance for pool-to-pool spacing data suggests that there is no significant difference with respect to channel width between pools that form in natural streams and those in streams affected by a variety of human uses. Short of channelization, which changes the channel width, pools and riffles, within limits, are not particularly sensitive to environmental stress. Experiments in Gum Branch near Charlotte, North Carolina, support the hypothesis that channel form and process evolve in harmony and that manipulation of cross-channel morphology can influence the development of desired channel processes. Planned manipulation of its channel form induced Gum Branch to develop as desired. Morphologic stability consisting of incipient point bars, pools, and riffles was maintained over a period of high magnitude flood events, only to be degraded later by a wave of sediment derived from upstream construction and stream-bank failures. Thus, environmentally desirable channel morphology in urban streams cannot remain stable if changes in the sediment load or storm-water runoff exceed the limits of the stream's ability to make internal adjustments while maintaining morphologic stability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians