Hydrologic and hydraulic characteristics of the Yellow River and impact of flow and sediment diversion

In the history, the Yellow River nurtured Chinese civilization. It is respected as the ＂ancestor of the four large rivers in China＂ and praised as ＂the mother river of China＂. At the same time, the Yellow River is regarded as ＂the misery of China＂ and considered as the most complex river hard to control in the world. Today, the Yellow River is also one large river greatly influenced by human activities in the world. The safety of the Yellow River, particularly flood control, is always the most important issue for governing and developing the country. Great achievements have been made after many years of efforts for controlling the Yellow River. However, since the nineties of 20 century, some new problems occurred, such as sharp reduction of flux to sea, dry rivercourse, worsen environment, etc. Rapidly shrinking riverbed and two-level perched stream are disadvantageous to flood safety especially. The new concepts and new practices are urgently needed to control the river. Therefore, the Yellow River Conservancy Committee of Ministry of Water Resources had continuously carded out flow and sediment diversion each year from 2002 to 2005. To timely probe into the new issues produced after flow and sediment diversion, and in order to deepen the understanding of rules for the Yellow River＇s water and sediment and provide reference and experience to the researchers for other large rivers, five hydrologic and hydraulic characteristics of the Yellow River, such as lack of water, much of sediment, different resources of water and sediment, inconsistency between water and sediment and frequency of sink switching and route changing, are described. Flow and sediment diversion of the Yellow River is also reviewed. Under flow and sediment diversion,     

Cascaded Evolution of Mantle Plumes and Metallogenesis of Core- and Mantle-derived Elements

Mineral deposits are unevenly distributed in the Earth's crust, which is closely related to the formation and evolution of the Earth. In the early history of the Earth, controlled by the gravitational contraction and thermal expansion, lighter elements, such as radioactive, halogen-family, rare and rare earth elements and alkali metals, migrated upwards; whereas heavier elements, such as iron-family and platinum-family elements, base metals and noble metals, had a tendency of sinking to the Earth's core, so that the elements iron, nickel, gold and silver are mainly concentrated in the Earth's core. However, during the formation of the stratified structure of the Earth, the existence of temperature, pressure and viscosity differences inside and outside the Earth resulted in vertical material movement manifested mainly by cascaded evolution of mantle plumes in the Earth. The stratifications and vertical movement of the Earth were interdependent and constituted the motive force of the mantle-core movement.     

Geological Characteristics and Manifestations of Geological Processes of Sequence Boundaries and Their Vicinities

This paper discusses the geological characteristics and architectures of sequence boundaries and their vicinities and has proposed a classification scheme for the sequence boundaries, which can thus be grouped into three types and eight categories: type I includes exposed truncated surface, palaeosol surface, palaeokarst surface and exposed surface; type Ⅱ boundaries include structural transitional surface during sea-level fall and transgressive onlap surface; and type Ⅲ includes submarine erosional diagenetic diastem and event surface. A study has been made for the three major boundaries lying between the Permian and pre-Permian, the Permian and Triassic, and the Middle and Lower Triassic respectively in terms of multiple disciplines such as lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and carbon and oxygen isotopic geology. These three boundaries are ascribed to type I , typeⅡ and typeⅢ, respectively.     

Study of structural and valence state of Cr and Fe in chrysoberyl and alexandrite with EPR and M?ssbauer spectroscopy

Data on the structural and valence distribution of Cr and Fe in chrysoberyl and in alexandrite, its gem variety, are given. It is shown that the Cr³⁺ line in the natural Ural and Tanzania samples is the strongest in the M1 site and for the synthetic stones, in the M2 site. During the annealing of the alexandrite crystals, Cr³⁺ passes from the smaller M1 site into the larger M2 site. The M?ssbauer spectroscopy quantitatively determined the distribution of different valence Fe ions. The various proportions of both Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions isomorphically entering the octahedral sites in the BeAl₂O₄ crystal structure were established.     

Investigation of hydrolysis and coagulation mechanism of poly-iron coagulant

Chemical coagulation is very important in water treatment, in which coagulant is an essential part. Pre-polymerized Al^3＋ and Fe^3＋ products have been used in practice, continuously spread for many years. However, iron-based coagulant has become the focus of studies due to cumulative biologic toxicity of residual Al in treated water. Polyferric sulfate （PFS） and poly-silicic-ferric sulfate （PSF） are all pre-polymerized polymers of Fe^3＋ salts. The hydrolysis process and species distribution of Fe^3＋ ions have been investigated extensively by many chemists and water-treatment specialists. Generally, the coagulation mechanism of conventional or pre-polymerized coagulants was often studied through jar-test, absorption experiment, microstructure observation or hydrolysis species indirectly. However, few researches have been done on the hydrolysis process of PSF in detail and on the study of the coagulation mechanism using its hydrolysis species distribution until now. In this work, PSF was prepared using water glass, ferrous sulfate and sodium chlorate by a copolymerization method. The hydrolysis species distribution was theoretically derived from pH variation during hydrolysis process of PSF compared to that of polyferric sulfate （PFS）, and then characteristics [morphology, species size, Zeta potential, spectra of X-ray diffraction and infrared spectra （IR）] and coagulation performances were explored between them. Coagulation mechanism was analyzed according to hydrolysis species distribution, characteristics and coagulation performances. The results showed that PSF gives different species distribution at different pH values and characteristics from those of PFS, leading to different coagulation mechanisms between the two coagulants.     

A Simulated Test of Algal Influence of Formation and Deposition of Phosphates

This paper deals with a simulated test of biogenic mineralization made with a blue-green alga species,Spirulina platensix. The data in the experiment were recorded by a computerized surveying system. The influ-ence of algae on the accumulation of phosphorus by changing their microenvironment to promote the forma-tion and deposition of phosphate was studied. The results show that the pH value of cultural liquor rose up to 10 and the redox potential (Eh) may dropby 100-200 mV during the algal logarithmic growth stage, and the cultrual liquor was changed into a mediumwith a weakly reducing condition. At the end of the logarithmic growth stage white deposits of Na_2Ca(CO_3)_2·5H_2O and Ca_2Mg (PO_4)_2·2H_2O were formed on the floor of cultural containers. The test presented a wduableevidence for the theory of biogenic mineralization.     

Different effects of EDTA on uptake and translocation of Pb and Cd by Typha latifolia

Effects of EDTA and heavy metals on growth of Typha latifolia and its uptake and translocation of Pb and Cd were investigated in this study. Both Pb and Cd of high concentrations had inhibitory effect on growth of Typha latifolia. Chlorophyll concentratio…     

On Metallogenic Conditions and Regularities of the Lower and Middle Reaches of the Changjiang River

The paper deals with the metallogenic conditions and regularities of the region ol the lower-middle reachesof the Changjiang River in China. The complicated structural network with the Changjiang (Yangtse) deepfracture as its trunk is the leading rock-and ore-controlling structure of the metallogenic belt. Thehigh-potassium granodiorites of the first magmatic sequence of the Mesozoic Yangtse syntexis type and thesodium-rich diorites of the second sequence are genetically related to the copper ore series and the iron ore se-ries respectively. and occur respectively in the block-faulted and-folded uplift area and the down-faulted vol-canic basin as well as the transitional zone between the two. The ore-hosting horizons show specific associa-tions of rocks and often contain ore beds basically of stratabound nature.     

Studies of distribution, release and environmental influences of Fushun oil shale and its self-combustion

Three dumping sites have been formed at the northern region of Fushun City, Liaoning Province, for a large number of gangues including much oil shale that had been piled onto ground as gangue during long-term coal exploitation at West Fushun Open-pit Mine. Under appropriate conditions, self-combustion occurs after long-term exposure of oil shale and consequently such phenomena could be found almost everywhere at the three dumping sites. Much polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons （PAHs） must be generated through oil shale self-combustion, a kind of incomplete combustion. In this paper, in order to make clear the PAHs distribution in oil shale and its self-combustion and their potential effects on surrounding environment, coal, low-grade oil shale, high-grade oil shale, burning oil shale, burnt oil shale and shaly soil collected from West Fushun Open-Pit Mine and West Dumping Site were analyzed quantitatively in 16 US EPA priority PAHs for the first time. Results showed that 16 PAHs in all samples were less than those in some bitumites and carbonaceous coals and were as much as those in lignites and anthracites from some Chinese mining areas. Coal and low-grade oil shale were abundant in lower molecular-weighted PAHs in contrast to high-grade oil shale with rich higher molecular-weighted PAHs. They had more benzo[a] pyrene than the highest background value in soils in Liaoning Province. So PAHs in these crude oil shales could cause potential effects on environment. There were at least 5121.40 p.g/kg PAils generated and at least 3976.70 μg/kg PAHs released into environment in the period from combustion beginning to sampling on the basis of calculation. Furthermore, the concentrations of 3-4 ring PAHs among them were very high. Therefore it could be said that oil shale self-combustion aggravated the environmental impacts of PAHs in oil shale. The low concentrations of PAHs in shaly soil showed that much PAHs had been released through recultivation and biodegradation.     

宁夏煤变质规律初探

宁夏煤炭资源丰富,煤类多,在区域和垂向上呈现出明显的规律性。晚古生代煤层以中、高变质的烟煤、无烟煤为主,中生代煤层以低变质的烟煤为主,从各含煤区分布看,贺兰山、香山含煤区多为高变质的烟煤和无烟煤,灵盐、固原含煤区以低变质烟煤为主,青铜峡-固原深断裂西部的煤变质程度明显高于东部。分析认为深成变质作用对各时代煤变质具有普遍意义,在此基础上,岩浆热力变质作用和动力变质作用也是导致局部地区煤变质增高的因素,如贺兰山含煤区的汝箕沟矿区,受隐伏岩浆热力影响,以岭大井田为中心,呈现北东向展布的半环带状煤级分带;香山含煤区各时代煤类分布方向与区域构造线方向一致,推测可能在深成变质作用下叠加了岩浆热力变质和动力变质作用。     

内蒙古潮水盆地西部侏罗系煤的岩石学、矿物学及地球化学特征

潮水盆地位于内蒙古西南部和甘肃省东部地区,是我国中新生代含煤断陷盆地.采用粉晶X衍射、ICP-MS、ICP-AES 方法,从煤的岩石学、煤化学及煤地球化学的理论出发,对潮水盆地西部煤样进行了煤化学、显微组分、矿物学及地球化学分析.其研究结果表明潮水盆地西部煤以中等水分、低一中灰分和硫质量分数、高挥发分产率为特征,煤级为烟煤—亚烟煤;煤中有机显微组分以镜质组为主,惰性组次之,煤相类型以潮湿森林沼泽相为主,其次为较浅覆水森林沼泽相;煤中的常量矿物以石英和高岭石为主,部分样品中含有黄铁矿、方解石、菱铁矿和少量的微斜长石;煤中除Sr、B和Cs质量分数相对较高外,其他微量元素质量分数普遍较低.Cr、Ga、Pb、Li、Cu、Ge、V、Sc、Be、W、Th和As,以及Ti和Nb主要与硅铝酸盐矿物有好的亲和性;B和Sr可能主要以碳酸盐矿物的形式存在;S和Mo可能主要以硫化物矿物的形式存在;另外,Ti、Zr、Nb和Ta有好的相关性,可能与重矿物有关.     

不同变质类型煤的XRD结构演化特征

通过对大别造山带前陆盆地石炭纪含煤岩系高煤级煤的X射线衍射分析,探讨了高煤级煤基本结构单元的演化特征及其影响因素。结果表明,构造应力作用提高了“煤晶核”BSU的延展度和堆砌度,使面网间距减小。      

Role of coal type and rank on methane sorption characteristics of Bowen Basin, Australia coals

The effect of coal composition, particularly the organic fraction, upon gas sorption has been investigated for Bowen Basin and Sydney Basin, Australia coals. Maceral composition influences on gas retention and release were investigated using isorank pairs of hand-picked bright and dull coal in the rank range of high volatile bituminous (0.78% R_{o max}) to anthracite (3.01% R_{o max}). Adsorption isotherm results of dry coals indicated that Langmuir volume (V_L) for bright and dull coal types followed discrete, second-order polynomial trends with increasing rank. Bright coals had a minimum V_L at 1.72% R_{o max} and dull coals had a minimum V_L at 1.17% R_{o max}. At low rank, V_L was greater in bright coal by about 10 cm³/g, but as rank increased, the bright and dull trends converged and crossed at 1.65% R_{o max}. At ranks higher than 1.65% R_{o max}, both bright and dull coals followed similar trends. These competing trends mean that the importance of maceral composition on V_L varies according to rank. In high volatile bituminous coals, increases in vitrinite content are associated with increases in adsorption capacity. At ranks higher than medium to low volatile bituminous, changes in maceral composition may exert relatively little influence on adsorption capacity. The Langmuir pressure (P_L) showed a strong relationship of decreasing P_L with increasing rank, which was not related to coal type. It is suggested that the observed trend is related to a decrease in the heterogeneity of the pore surfaces, and subsequent increased coverage by the adsorbate, as coal rank increases. Desorption rate studies on crushed samples show that dull coals desorb more rapidly than bright coals and that desorption rate is also a function of rank. Coals of lower rank have higher effective diffusivities. Mineral matter was found to have no influence on desorption rate of these finely crushed samples. The evolution of the coal pore structure with changing rank is implicated in diffusion rate differences.     

Interactions between organic matter and minerals in two bituminous coals of different rank

The association between specific mineral and organic constituents in two Asturian bituminous coals of different rank was studied. For this, raw coals were fractionated by density and the variation of a number of parameters was followed in parallel. Results of coal chemical analyses, including analyses for 22 elements, were used to establish the elemental association with coal organic matter. Petrographic analyses determined the distribution of macerals among densimetric fractions, vitrinite reflectance being at a minimum in the intermediate density fractions. Mineral species were identified by X-ray diffraction, FT-IR spectroscopy and Mössbauer spectroscopy. Comparison of trends for different parameters determined using this set of techniques allowed classification of the various minerals according to their association with organic matter. Carbonates seem to be specifically associated with the organic matter of the low-volatile bituminous coal whereas sulfides concentrate in the organic matter of the high-volatile bituminous coal. Vitrinite is the maceral exhibiting the most probable association with inorganic matter. The possibility of a merely physical association of fine-grained detrital minerals with organic matter cannot be excluded; nevertheless, one must bear in mind that even this type of interaction is important due to its effect on various coal preparation and utilization processes.     

沁水盆地晚古生代煤中硫的地球化学特征及其对有害微量元素富集的影响

煤中硫是多种有害微量元素的重要载体。基于形态硫分析、电感耦合等离子质谱及X射线衍射等方法分析沁水盆地晚古生代煤中硫和有害微量元素的分布规律,探讨了煤中硫对有害微量元素富集的影响,运用带能谱的扫描电镜和光学显微镜划分煤中硫化物的微观赋存特征。结果表明,沁水盆地煤中硫整体上以有机硫为主,平均占全硫的78%,只有在太原组个别高硫煤中以黄铁矿硫为占优势。显微镜和扫描电镜下可识别出煤中黄铁矿的微观赋存状态包括莓球状、薄膜状、晶粒状、结核状、团窝状黄铁矿和细粒黄铁矿集合体,白铁矿的微观赋存特征包括聚片状、板状和矛头状白铁矿,部分白铁矿与黄铁矿共生。沁水盆地煤中有害微量元素含量整体较低,黄铁矿是有害微量元素As、Se和Hg的重要载体,而有机硫决定了煤中U的富集。研究认为,成煤时期海水对泥炭沼泽的影响导致太原组煤中全硫和黄铁矿硫较高,太原组煤中硫的来源具有多样性,煤中黄铁矿具有多阶段演化的特点。     

Quantitative micro‐X‐ray fluorescence scanning spectroscopy of wet sediment based on the X‐ray absorption and emission theories: Its application to freshwater lake sedimentary sequences

Micro‐X‐ray fluorescence scanning spectroscopy of marine and lake sedimentary sequences can provide detailed palaeoenvironmental records through element intensity proxy data. However, problems with the effects of interstitial pore water on the micro‐X‐ray fluorescence intensities have been pointed out. This is because the X‐ray fluorescence intensities are measured directly at the surfaces of split wet sediment core samples. This study developed a new method for correcting X‐ray fluorescence data to compensate for the effects of pore water using a scanning X‐ray analytical microscope. This involved simultaneous use of micro‐X‐ray fluorescence scanning spectroscopy and an X‐ray transmission detector. To evaluate the interstitial pore water content from the X‐ray transmission intensities, a fine‐grained sediment core retrieved from Lake Baikal (VER99‐G12) was used to prepare resin‐embedded samples with smooth surfaces and uniform thickness. Simple linear regression between the linear absorption coefficients of the samples and their porosity, based on the Lambert–Beer law, enabled calculation of the interstitial pore spaces and their resin content with high reproducibility. The X‐ray fluorescence intensities of resin‐embedded samples were reduced compared with those of dry sediment samples because of: (i) the X‐ray fluorescence absorption of resin within sediment; and (ii) the sediment dilution effects by resin. An improved micro‐X‐ray fluorescence correction equation based on X‐ray fluorescence emission theory considers the instrument's sensitivity to each element, which provides a reasonable explanation of these two effects. The resin‐corrected X‐ray fluorescence intensity was then successfully converted to elemental concentrations using simple linear regression between the data from micro‐X‐ray fluorescence scanning spectroscopy and from the conventional analyzer. In particular, the calculated concentration of SiO₂ over the depth of the core, reflecting diatom/biogenic silica concentration, was significantly changed by the calibrations, from a progressively decreasing trend to an increasing trend towards the top of the core.     

Developments in high-resolution solid-state13C NMR spectroscopy of coals

The recent development of “second generation” NMR experiments on coals is discussed in this paper. Such experiments have three aims: (1) To determine the extent to which quantitative aromaticity measurements can be made on coals by cross polarization-magic angle spinning (CP/MAS); (2) To obtain more detailed information on coal structure and reactivity than that given by the simple aromaticity measurements possible at the time; (3) To follow reaction pathways when coal is chemically modified. In this plenary lecture the relevant literature is reviewed, and new experimental work in all three areas outlined above is reported. Experimental evidence is presented which shows that aromaticity measurements on a bituminous coal by cross polarization (CP) or single pulse techniques give identical results. Relaxation data for naphthalene polymers suggest that these structures in coal are seen in CP experiments. Dipolar dephasing experiments suggest that the average size of the coal vitrinite molecule does not increase with increase in coal rank due to aromatic substitution reactions. Various relaxation experiments demonstrate how different carbon types can be distinguished in both¹³C-labelled and unlabelled coals.     

Initial volatilization temperatures and average volatilization rates of coal — Their relationship to coal rank and other characteristics

Two thermal parameters, initial volatilization temperature (IVT) and average volatilization rate (AVR), have been determined by thermogravimetric analysis in argon for 38 coal samples ranging in rank from lignite to low-volatile bituminous. Both IVT and AVR are correlated with percent volatile matter and vitrinite reflectance.The IVT values increase gradually from about 250 to 445°C with increasing rank; however, a change in slope is observed in the region of high-volatile bituminous coals (from about 340°C to about 380°C) when IVT's are plotted against percent volatile matter or percent fixed carbon. The changes in slope near 340°C and near 380°C occur at “coalification jumps” recognized on the basis of changes in the optical and chemical character of the macerals. In general, AVR values decrease gradually with increasing rank for the lignite and sub-bituminous coals and for the medium- and low-volatile bituminous coals; however, a sharp increase in AVR occurs in high-volatile bituminous coals. The change in slope of the IVT curves and sharp increase in the AVR values for high-volatile bituminous coals reflect the development of new, higher vapor pressure organic compounds produced during this stage of the coalification process.A plot of AVR vs IVT reveals three regions which correspond to: (1) lignite and sub-bituminous coals; (2) high-volatile bituminous coals; and (3) medium- to low-volatile bituminous coals.     

Mercury in Eastern Kentucky coals: Geologic aspects and possible reduction strategies

Mercury emissions from US coal-fired power plants will be regulated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) before the end of the decade. Because of this, the control of Hg in coal is important. Control is fundamentally based on the knowledge of the amounts of Hg in mined, beneficiated, and as-fired coal. Eastern Kentucky coals, on a reserve district level, have Hg contents similar to the USA average for coal at mines. Individual coals show greater variation at the bench scale, with Hg enrichment common in the top bench, often associated with enhanced levels of pyritic sulfur. Some of the variation between parts of eastern Kentucky is also based on the position relative to major faults. The Pine Mountain thrust fault appears to be responsible for elemental enrichment, including Hg, in coals on the footwall side of the thrust.Eastern Kentucky coals shipped to power plants in 1999, the year the USEPA requested coal quality information on coal deliveries, indicate that coals shipped from the region have 0.09 ppm Hg, compared to 0.10 ppm for all delivered coals in the USA. On an equal energy basis, and given equal concentrations of Hg, the high volatile bituminous coals from eastern Kentucky would emit less Hg than lower rank coals from other USA regions.