Sea-Salt Aerosol Effects on the Simulated Microphysics and Precipitation in a Tropical Cyclone

We investigate the effects of sea-salt aerosol(SSA) activated as cloud condensation nuclei on the microphysical processes, precipitation, and thermodynamics of a tropical cyclone(TC). The Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with Chemistry(WRF-Chem) was used together with a parameterization of SSA production. Three simulations, with different levels of SSA emission(CTL, LOW, HIGH), were conducted. The simulation results show that SSA contributes to the processes of autoconversion of cloud water and accretion of cloud water by rain,thereby promoting rain formation. The latent heat release increases with SSA emission, slightly increasing horizontal wind speeds of the TC. The presence of SSA also regulates the thermodynamic structure and precipitation of the TC.In the HIGH simulation, higher latent heat release gives rise to stronger updrafts in the TC eyewall area, leading to enhanced precipitation. In the LOW simulation, due to decreased latent heat release, the temperature in the TC eye is lower, enhancing the downdrafts in the region; and because of conservation of mass, updrafts in the eyewall also strengthen slightly; as a result, precipitation in the LOW experiment is a little higher than that in the CTL experiment.Overall, the relationship between the precipitation rate and SSA emission is nonlinear.     

Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation Interactions in WRF Model: Sensitivity to Autoconversion Parameterization

Cloud-to-rain autoconversion process is an important player in aerosol loading, cloud morphology, and precipitation variations because it can modulate cloud microphysical characteristics depending on the participation of aerosols, and affects the spatio-temporal distribution and total amount of precipitation. By applying the Kessler, the Khairoutdinov-Kogan(KK), and the Dispersion autoconversion parameterization schemes in a set of sensitivity experiments, the indirect effects of aerosols on clouds and precipitation are investigated for a deep convective cloud system in Beijing under various aerosol concentration backgrounds from 50 to 10000 cm-3. Numerical experiments show that aerosol-induced precipitation change is strongly dependent on autoconversion parameterization schemes. For the Kessler scheme, the average cumulative precipitation is enhanced slightly with increasing aerosols, whereas surface precipitation is reduced significantly with increasing aerosols for the KK scheme. Moreover, precipitation varies non-monotonically for the Dispersion scheme, increasing with aerosols at lower concentrations and decreasing at higher concentrations.These different trends of aerosol-induced precipitation change are mainly ascribed to differences in rain water content under these three autoconversion parameterization schemes. Therefore, this study suggests that accurate parameterization of cloud microphysical processes, particularly the cloud-to-rain autoconversion process, is needed for improving the scientific understanding of aerosol-cloud-precipitation interactions.     

The radiative influence of aerosol effects on liquid-phase cumulus and stratiform clouds based on sensitivity studies with two climate models

Aerosol effects on warm (liquid-phase) cumulus cloud systems may have a strong radiative influence via suppression of precipitation in convective systems. A consequence of this suppression of precipitation is increased liquid water available for large-scale stratiform clouds, through detrainment, that in turn affect their precipitation efficiency. The nature of this influence on radiation, however, is dependent on both the treatment of convective condensate and the aerosol distribution. Here, we examine these issues with two climate models—CSIRO and GISS, which treat detrained condensate differently. Aerosol–cloud interactions in warm stratiform and cumulus clouds (via cloud droplet formation and autoconversion) are treated similarly in both models. The influence of aerosol–cumulus cloud interactions on precipitation and radiation are examined via simulations with present-day and pre-industrial aerosol emissions. Sensitivity tests are also conducted to examine changes to climate due to changes in cumulus cloud droplet number (N _c); the main connection between aerosols and cumulus cloud microphysics. Results indicate that the CSIRO GCM is quite sensitive to changes in aerosol concentrations such that an increase in aerosols increases N _c, cloud cover, total liquid water path (LWP) and reduces total precipitation and net cloud radiative forcings. On the other hand, the radiative fluxes in the GISS GCM appear to have minimal changes despite an increase in aerosols and N _c. These differences between the two models—reduced total LWP in the GISS GCM for increased aerosols, opposite to that seen in CSIRO—appear to be more sensitive to the detrainment of convective condensate, rather than to changes in N _c. If aerosols suppress convective precipitation as noted in some observationally based studies (but not currently treated in most climate models), the consequence of this change in LWP suggests that: (1) the aerosol indirect effect (calculated as changes to net cloud radiative forcing from anthropogenic aerosols) may be higher than previously calculated or (2) lower than previously calculated. Observational constrains on these results are difficult to obtain and hence, until realistic cumulus-scale updrafts are implemented in models, the logic of detraining non-precipitating condensate at appropriate levels based on updrafts and its effects on radiation, will remain an uncertainty.     

一种改进的质量通量积云参数化方案及预报试验

用国家气象中心有限区域业务预报模式,以１９９８年８月一次热带风暴降水过程为试验个例,对引入了下曳气流的质量通量积云对流参数方案和模式中的原质量通量积云参数化方案进行了对比试验。结果显示;引入了下曳气流后,通过提高对流降水量使降雨强度预报得以提高,更接近于实况;改进后的方案对大雨以上预报水平有一定的改善,各项评分结果均有所提高。     

A numerical simulation of the effect of the number concentration of cloud droplets on Typhoon Chanchu

In recent years, an increase in the number of anthropogenic aerosol particles has raised the global mean content of aerosol particles in the atmosphere from that of preindustrial times. The indirect effects of aerosols on weather and climate cannot be ignored. In this paper, the fifth generation Pennsylvania State University (PSU)?CNational Center of Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model (MM5) is used to simulate Typhoon Chanchu (international designation: 0601), which affected the northwest Pacific. Simulations are conducted in three two-way nested domains with Mercator map projection. The horizontal grid resolutions of the three domains are 27, 9, and 3?km. A period of 60?h is simulated. Surface and rawinsonde conventional observation data and ocean wind data are additionally incorporated into the initialization data. A control (CTL) experiment is run to produce a reasonable forecast. We change the parameter of the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentration (CNP) in the Reisner-2 scheme of the CTL experiment (the default value is 100?cm^?3) to conduct two sensitivity experiments. They are the very clean marine (VCM) CNP experiment (CNP?=?25?cm^?3) and the severe contamination (SC) CNP experiment (CNP?=?1,000?cm^?3). We investigate the effects of the CNP on Typhoon Chanchu by comparing and analyzing the simulation results of the three experiments in terms of the track, intensity, precipitation, vertical structure, and microphysical processes. The main results show that Typhoon Chanchu slightly weakens as the CNP increases. Increasing the CCN to 1,000?cm^?3 results in less graupel, rainwater, and cloud ice but more cloud water. However, the mixing ratio of snow does not distinctly change as the CNP changes. Increasing the CCN leads a rapid decrease in the autoconversion of cloud water to rainwater. There is no autoconversion of cloud water to rainwater in a seriously polluted continental air mass. As the CNP increases, there is more condensation, evaporation, accretion of cloud water by rainwater, and precipitation fallout. Finally, a seriously polluted continental air mass can result in distinctly lower precipitation efficiency.     

对流降水云中大气垂直运动反演及个例试验

为深入认识对流降水云结构及动力特征,基于降水频段调频连续波5520 MHz垂直指向雷达(VPR-CFMCW),使用地面至15 km高度的反射率因子及径向速度,建立对流降水云中大气垂直运动的反演方法,分析对流垂直结构及大气垂直运动随高度分布的演变特征.对在广东龙门测站探测的2019年4月20-22日前汛期4次对流降水进行...     

中国区域气溶胶对东亚夏季风的可能影响（I）：硫酸盐气溶胶的影响

利用NCAR的新一代GCM CAM3.0模式离线耦合一个气溶胶同化系统,模拟研究了中国区域硫酸盐气溶胶的直接气候效应对东亚夏季风及其降水的影响。结果显示：中国区域硫酸盐气溶胶引起全球平均的直接辐射强迫为-0.25 W/m²,中国内陆约25°N以北普遍降温,而海表温度升高。由此导致海陆温差缩小,东亚夏季风强度减弱,中国地区季风降水明显减少,而尤以积云降水减少起主要作用。硫酸盐气溶胶对中国地区的对流活动起抑制作用。     

Aerosol Microphysical and Radiative Effects on Continental Cloud Ensembles

Aerosol–cloud–radiation interactions represent one of the largest uncertainties in the current climate assessment. Much of the complexity arises from the non-monotonic responses of clouds, precipitation and radiative fluxes to aerosol perturbations under various meteorological conditions. In this study, an aerosol-aware WRF model is used to investigate the microphysical and radiative effects of aerosols in three weather systems during the March 2000 Cloud Intensive Observational Period campaign at the US Southern Great Plains. Three simulated cloud ensembles include a low-pressure deep convective cloud system, a collection of less-precipitating stratus and shallow cumulus, and a cold frontal passage. The WRF simulations are evaluated by several ground-based measurements. The microphysical properties of cloud hydrometeors, such as their mass and number concentrations, generally show monotonic trends as a function of cloud condensation nuclei concentrations.Aerosol radiative effects do not influence the trends of cloud microphysics, except for the stratus and shallow cumulus cases where aerosol semi-direct effects are identified. The precipitation changes by aerosols vary with the cloud types and their evolving stages, with a prominent aerosol invigoration effect and associated enhanced precipitation from the convective sources. The simulated aerosol direct effect suppresses precipitation in all three cases but does not overturn the aerosol indirect effect. Cloud fraction exhibits much smaller sensitivity(typically less than 2%) to aerosol perturbations, and the responses vary with aerosol concentrations and cloud regimes. The surface shortwave radiation shows a monotonic decrease by increasing aerosols, while the magnitude of the decrease depends on the cloud type.     

利用GRAPES模式研究气溶胶对云和降水过程的影响

在GRAPES中尺度模式的双参数微物理方案中加入了气溶胶活化参数化过程,实现了对云滴数浓度的预报。选取不同季节两个降水过程进行模拟,并分别开展了不同气溶胶背景下的两个试验进行对比分析,研究气溶胶对云和降水可能的影响。结果表明:气溶胶浓度增加后,因为活化产生了更多尺度较小的云滴,抑制了云雨的自动转化,使大气中滞留了更多的云水,暖云降水减小;另一方面,云水的增加会使冰相粒子,尤其是雪和霰通过碰并云水等过程而增大,最后融化成雨增加冷云降水,同时冰相粒子增加会释放更多的潜热,促进上升气流的发展,进一步增加冷云降水。气溶胶对降水的影响存在空间不一致性,暖云较厚的地方暖雨过程受到的抑制明显,使地面降水减小,冷云厚度相对较厚时,冷云降水的增加会大于暖云降水的抑制,使地面降水增加。同时由于在云降水发展的不同阶段冷暖云的变化,气溶胶对降水的影响也存在着时间不一致性。     

中国区域气溶胶对东亚夏季风的可能影响（I）：硫酸盐气溶胶的影响

 利用NCAR的新一代GCM CAM3.0模式离线耦合一个气溶胶同化系统,模拟研究了中国区域硫酸盐气溶胶的直接气候效应对东亚夏季风及其降水的影响。结果显示：中国区域硫酸盐气溶胶引起全球平均的直接辐射强迫为-0.25 W/m²,中国内陆约25°N以北普遍降温,而海表温度升高。由此导致海陆温差缩小,东亚夏季风强度减弱,中国地区季风降水明显减少,而尤以积云降水减少起主要作用。硫酸盐气溶胶对中国地区的对流活动起抑制作用。     

Simulation of marine stratocumulus: effect of precipitation parameterization and sensitivity to droplet number concentration

Marine stratocumulus observations show a large variability in cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) related to variability in aerosol concentration. Changes in CDNC modify the cloud reflectivity, but also affect cloud water content, cloud lifetime, and cloudiness, through changes in precipitation. In mesoscale models and general circulation models (GCMs), precipitation mechanisms are parameterized. Here we examine how the precipitation parameterization can affect the simulated cloud. Simulations are carried out with the one-dimensional version of the hydrostatic primitive equation model MAR (Modéle Atmosphérique Régional) developed at the Université catholique de Louvain. It includes a E- turbulence closure, a wide-band formulation of the radiative transfer, and a parameterized microphysics including prognostic equations for water vapour, cloud droplets and rain drops concentrations. In a first step, the model is used to simulate a horizontally homogeneous stratocumulus deck observed during the Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment (ASTEX) on the night of 12–13 June 1992. The observations show that the model is able to realistically reproduce the vertical structure of the cloud-topped boundary layer. In a second step, several precipitation parameterizations commonly used in mesoscale models and GCMs are tested. It is found that most parameterizations tend to overestimate the precipitation, which results in an underestimation of the vertically integrated liquid water content. Afterwards, using those parameterizations that are sensitive to CDNC, several simulations are performed to estimate the effect of CDNC variations on the simulated cloud. Based upon the simulation results, we argue that currently used parameterizations do not enable assessment of such a sensitivity.     

Revisiting the parcel method and CAPE

Although the parcel method and the convective available potential energy (CAPE) are widely used to predict the strength and height of convection, they ignore the pressure perturbation and fail to explain strong updrafts observed in tropical cyclones and hurricanes without CAPE, or deep, strong warm downdrafts in hurricane eye-walls, tropopause folds, or downslope winds leeward of mountains. Those phenomena can be explained by the Bernoulli equation that conserves the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and enthalpy in an inviscid fluid. Our analytic and numerical results also show how, in a moist stable environment without CAPE, updrafts and clouds can develop against negative buoyancy. Deep warm downdrafts can also form in cloud-free regions or areas without significant evaporative cooling from precipitation.     

不同吸湿性的气溶胶对云和降水影响研究进展

气溶胶、云、降水相互关系是现今大气科学的前沿领域。本文总体概括了气溶胶作为云凝结核和冰核,对云宏微观物理特性及降水的影响原理研究的主要成果。并根据气溶胶自身化学性质的吸湿性,从吸湿性气溶胶和非吸湿性气溶胶两方面,重点探讨了模拟研究中,硫酸盐、海盐、沙尘、黑碳气溶胶对于云和降水的影响,以及各类气溶胶与其它类型气溶胶相比,作用于云降水的不同方式。提出之前研究工作的不足,以期为今后该方向的研究提供一些思路。      

Impact of Anthropogenic Aerosols on Summer Precipitation in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Urban Agglomeration in China:Regional Climate Modeling Using WRF-Chem

The WRF model with chemistry(WRF-Chem) was employed to simulate the impacts of anthropogenic aerosols on summer precipitation over the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei urban agglomeration in China. With the aid of a high-resolution gridded inventory of anthropogenic emissions of trace gases and aerosols, we conducted relatively long-term regional simulations,considering direct, semi-direct and indirect effects of the aerosols. Comparing the results of sensitivity experiments with and without emissions, it was found that anthropogenic aerosols tended to enhance summer precipitation over the metropolitan areas. Domain-averaged rainfall was increased throughout the day, except for the time around noon. Aerosols shifted the precipitation probability distribution from light or moderate to extreme rain. Further analysis showed that the anthropogenic aerosol radiative forcing had a cooling effect at the land surface, but a warming effect in the atmosphere. However, enhanced convective strength and updrafts accompanied by water vapor increases and cyclone-like wind shear anomalies were found in the urban areas. These responses may originate from cloud microphysical effects of aerosols on convection, which were identified as the primary cause for the summer rainfall enhancement.     

Effect of Aerosol Particles on Orographic Clouds:Sensitivity to Autoconversion Schemes

Aerosol particles can serve as cloud condensation nuclei(CCN)to influence orographic clouds.Autoconversion,which describes the initial formation of raindrops from the collision of cloud droplets,is an important process for aerosol-cloud-precipitation systems.In this study,seven autoconversion schemes are used to investigate the impact of CCN on orographic warm-phase clouds.As the initial cloud droplet concentration is increased from 100 cm^-3to 1000 cm^-3(to represent an increase in CCN),the cloud water increases and then the rainwater is suppressed due to a decrease in the autoconversion rate,leading to a spatial shift in surface precipitation.Intercomparison of the results from the autoconversion schemes show that the sensitivity of cloud water,rainwater,and surface precipitation to a change in the concentration of CCN is different from scheme to scheme.In particular,the decrease in orographic precipitation due to increasing CCN is found to range from-87%to-10%depending on the autoconversion scheme.Moreover,the surface precipitation distribution also changes significantly by scheme or CCN concentration,and the increase in the spillover(ratio of precipitation on the leeward side to total precipitation)induced by increased CCN ranges from 10%to 55%under different autoconversion schemes.The simulations suggest that autoconversion parameterization schemes should not be ignored in the interaction of aerosol and orographic cloud.     

气溶胶影响云和降水的机理和观测研究进展

气溶胶对云和降水的影响,对于气候系统、大气环境以及水循环至关重要。气溶胶粒子作为云凝结核和大气冰核影响云的微物理过程,进而影响雨、雪、雹和其他形式的降水。近年来,在理解气溶胶的化学成分,气溶胶微物理特性以及气溶胶作为云凝结核和大气冰核影响云降水等方面已取得重大进展。本文对于气溶胶的概念、来源以及气溶胶的直接和间接效应进行了简要概述,重点总结了国内外在气溶胶影响云和降水的机理研究方面的成果,回顾了近年来利用卫星、地面观测设备、机载探测设备等对气溶胶和云进行遥感观测和直接观测所获得的观测事实并讨论了其可能的物理机制,在总结前人研究成果的基础上对未来的研究方向进行了讨论。     

北京冬季降水粒子谱及其下落速度的分布特征

为了深入探讨北京冬季云降水的微物理特征,提高雷达反演冬季固态降水的精度和冬季降水的预报水平,利用PARSIVEL（Particle Size and Velocity）降水粒子谱仪所观测的冬季降水粒子谱,结合地面显微镜粒子图像和云雷达数据,对比分析了北京海坨山地区冬季过冷雨滴、霰粒、雪花、混合态降水的粒子谱和下落速度特征,得到主要结论如下:（1）霰粒降水过程的云顶最高,整层的含水量最大,低层的退偏振比（LDR）最小,粒子更接近于球形;降雪过程的云顶最低,云中含水量最少,低层的退偏振比较大;混合态降水过程的雷达回波强度和高度特征介于两者之间,但低层的退偏振比最大;（2）在云中上升或下沉气流及湍流的影响下,过冷雨滴、霰粒和雪的下落速度均对称分布于各自理论下落末速度曲线的两侧。因此可根据粒子浓度相对于其直径和速度分布的中轴线位置,判断出该段降水过程中的主要粒子形态;（3）冬季雪花、霰粒和混合态降水粒子下落速度分布的散度较雨滴更大,其原因是由于冷云降水过程的粒子形态复杂,且固态粒子下落过程中更容易受破碎、聚并和凇附等微物理过程影响;（4）在4种降水类型中,雪的平均直径和离散度最大,雨滴最小;混合态降水粒子的总数浓度最大,雨滴的总数浓度最低,并且4种降水类型的粒子数浓度、平均直径和离散度均随降水强度的增大而增大。      

The effect of aerosol representation on cloud microphysical properties in Northeast Asia

This study performed a three-dimensional regional-scale simulation of aerosol and cloud fields using a meso-scale non-hydrostatic model with a bin-based cloud microphysics. The representation of aerosols in the model has been improved to account for more realistic multi-modal size distribution and multiple chemical compositions. Two case studies for shallow stratocumulus over Northeast Asia in March 2005 were conducted with different aerosol conditions to evaluate model performance. Improved condensation nuclei (CN) and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are attributable to the newly constructed aerosol size distribution. The simulated results of cloud microphysical properties (cloud droplet effective radius, liquid water path, and optical thickness) with improved CN/CCN number are close to the retrievals from satellite-based observation. The effects of aerosol on the microphysical properties of shallow stratocumulus are investigated by model simulation, in terms of columnar aerosol number concentration. Enhanced aerosol number concentration results in increased liquid water path in humid case, but invariant liquid water path in dry case primarily due to precipitation occurrence. The changes of cloud microphysical properties are more predominant for small aerosol burden than for large aerosol burden with the retarded changes in cloud mass and size due to inactive condensation and collision-coalescence processes. Quantitative evaluation of sensitivity factor between aerosol and cloud microphysical properties indicates a strong aerosol-cloud interaction in Northeast Asian region.     

硫酸盐气溶胶间接效应对中国东部冬季气候的影响

气溶胶间接效应通过对云的作用来影响气候,其过程复杂且不确定性较大。本研究利用美国国家大气研究中心（NCAR）的公共大气模式CAM5.1,通过改变模式中硫酸盐气溶胶转化为云凝结核数浓度的数量,设计了硫酸盐气溶胶间接效应的敏感性试验,通过与控制试验对比来研究其间接效应对中国东部地区冬季云、降水和季风强度的影响。结果表明：在东亚地区云凝结核形成过程中,硫酸盐气溶胶占绝对的主导地位。硫酸盐气溶胶间接效应导致中国东部地区冬季云凝结核和云滴数浓度显著增加,海洋和陆地低层的云滴有效半径减小和总云液水路径的增加,导致了云反照率的增加。引起的负辐射强迫使地表和大气降温,海平面气压升高,增加的海陆气压梯度导致中国南方地区东亚冬季风增强,总降水率减少。硫酸盐气溶胶间接效应可能不是东亚冬季风在20世纪80年代中期年际变率减弱的原因。     

青藏高原那曲地区一次对流云降水过程的特征分析

利用雨滴谱和Ka波段毫米波云雷达等资料,针对2020年7月21日发生在那曲地区的一次对流云降水过程进行特征分析。结果表明:此次强对流云降水过程表现出明显的日变化特征,对流云在傍晚达到最强。强对流区内存在明显的上升气流和下沉气流,降水最强时雷达回波达到40 dBZ以上,降水过程中最大云顶高度为12 km,最小为720 m。那曲地区Gamma分布相对于M-P分布更适用于对流云小直径粒子（0~1 mm）的雨滴谱拟合,随着粒子直径增大,降水越来越不稳定。