基于集合卡尔曼滤波的土壤温湿度同化试验

以通用陆面模式CLM 3.0(Community Land Model 3.0)为模型算子,基于集合卡尔曼滤波(Ensemble Kalman Filter,En KF)发展了一个土壤温湿度同化系统,主要用于改进模式对土壤温湿度和地表水热通量的模拟精度,并考察集合样本数、同化频率及不同观测量的组合对同化效果的影响。该系统同化了FLUXNET两个站点(阿柔和Bondville)不同土壤深度、不同时间频率的土壤温度和湿度数据。通过对阿柔站不同集合样本数的设计,综合考虑计算成本和计算精度,最终将集合样本数设置为40。通过分析三种同化方案对同化频率的敏感性得出,同化土壤温度最为敏感,同时同化土壤温湿度次之,同化土壤湿度最不敏感。对于阿柔站点,同化系统对不同土壤深度温度和湿度的模拟精度均能提高90%,潜热通量的均方根误差由94.0 W·m~(-2)降为46.3 W·m~(-2),感热通量均方根误差由55.9 W·m~(-2)降为24.6 W·m~(-2)。Bondville站点浅层土壤温度的改进在30%左右,深层土壤温度改进达到60%,对土壤湿度的改进均在70%以上,潜热通量和感热通量的均方根误差分别从57.4 W·m~(-2)和54.4 W·m~(-2)降为51.0 W·m~(-2)和42.5 W·m~(-2)。试验结果表明,同化站点土壤温湿度数据对土壤水热状况及通量的模拟改进非常有效,同时也验证了同化土壤水分遥感产品的可行性和必要性。     

Surface energy, water and carbon cycle in China simulated by the Australian community land surface model (CABLE)

Through an Australia-China climate change bilateral project, we analyzed results of 51-year global offline simulations over China using the Australian community atmosphere biosphere land exchange (CABLE) model, focusing on integrated studies of its surface energy, water and carbon cycle at seasonal, interannual and longer time-scales. In addition to the similar features in surface climatology between the CABLE simulation and those derived from the global land-surface data assimilation system, comparison of surface fluxes at a CEOP reference site in northeast China also suggested that the seasonal cycles of surface evaporation and CO₂ flux are reasonably simulated by the model. We further assessed temporal variations of model soil moisture with the observed variations at a number of locations in China. Observations show a soil moisture recharge–discharge mechanism on a seasonal time scale in central-east China, with soil moisture being recharged during its summer wet season, retained in its winter due to low evaporation demand, and depleted during early spring when the land warms up. Such a seasonal cycle is shown at both 50- and 100-cm soil depths in observations while the model only shows a similar feature in its lower soil layers with its upper layer soil moisture varying tightly with rainfall seasonal cycle. In the analysis of the model carbon cycle, the net primary productivity (NPP) has similar spatial patterns as the ones derived from an ecosystem model with remote sensing. The simulated interannual variations of NPP by CABLE are consistent with the results derived from remote sensing-based and process-based studies over the period of 1981–2000. Nevertheless an upward trend from observations is not presented in the model results. The model shows a downward trend primarily due to the constant CO₂ concentration used in the experiment and a large increase of autotrophic respiration caused by an upward trend in surface temperature forcing data. Furthermore, we have compared river discharge data from the model experiments with observations in the Yangtze and Yellow River basins in China. In the Yangtze River basin, while the observed interannual variability is reasonably captured, the model significantly underestimates its river discharge, which is consist with its overestimation of evaporation in the region. In the Yellow River basin, the magnitudes of the river discharge is similar between modeled and observed but its variations are less skillfully captured as seen in the Yangtze River region.     

东北雨养玉米田碳交换年际变化及影响因素北大核心CSCD

在气候变化背景下,农田净生态系统生产力变化趋势和影响因素不确定性大,为有效评估农田生态系统的固碳潜力,利用2005-2020年东北雨养春玉米田涡动相关数据分析该区域碳通量年际变化趋势及其气象、土壤和生物影响因素。结果表明:东北雨养春玉米田净生态系统生产力为272±109g·m^(-2)·a^(-1),且无显著变化趋势;与生态系统呼吸相比,净生态系统生产力年际变化主要受总生态系统生产力影响。气象因素的降水量和生物因素的作物水分利用效率是净生态系统生产力年际变化的主要影响因素,影响权重分别为28.4%和31.4%;气象、土壤和生物因素对总生态系统生产力年际变化的影响权重分别为61.0%,43.8%和62.8%;土壤因素和生物因素是生态系统呼吸年际变化的主要影响因素,且土壤因素对生态系统呼吸年际变化的影响权重(39.3%)大于生物因素(29.2%)。在气候变暖背景下,东北雨养春玉米田对水分更为敏感,同时日照和温度通过影响饱和水汽压差和土壤湿度间接影响净生态系统生产力的年际变化。     

丘陵区土壤热通量遥感估算模型适应性分析

利用具有丘陵区典型特征的四川省乐至县气象站的土壤热通量和净辐射观测数据,分析了二者的变化特征,并验证了土壤热通量遥感估算模型的适用性。分析结果表明：晴空土壤热通量G与净辐射Rn存在明显日变化,最大值出现13时左右;其比值G／Rn受土壤湿润程度和地表覆盖的影响,地表湿润、覆盖率高,比值小。在干旱时,瞬时比值可高达0．7,而湿润情况,可低至0．05。对目前广泛使用的G／Rn卫星遥感模型估算结果与实测值的对比分析表明,不同的G／Rn卫星遥感估算模型估算结果存在明显的差异,仅依靠植被指数的模型不适合南方丘陵区。本研究认为Bastiaanssen等的模型较适合丘陵区的土壤热通量遥感估算模型。     

LPJ-WHyMe模型对1997～2010年中国东北地区潜在植被分布和碳循环的模拟研究

利用一套高分辨率的气候驱动场和全球动态植被模型LPJ-WHyMe(Lund-Potsdam-Jena-Wetland Hydrology and Methane),模拟了中国东北地区潜在植被分布,并对中国东北地区1997～2010年平均净初级生产力（Net Primary Production, NPP）、净生态系统生产力（Net Ecosystem Production, NEP）、燃烧面积、火灾碳排放、土壤温度和土壤湿度进行了估算。LPJ-WHyMe的特点在于能够描述冻融的物理过程以及土壤中多层的湿度和温度。数值结果表明,在LPJ-WHyMe模型提供的植被功能类型（Plant Function Type, PFT）划分的条件下,中国东北地区主要分布了5种植被功能类型,即温带夏绿阔叶林带、北方常绿针叶林带、北方夏绿针叶林带、北方夏绿阔叶林带和温带草本植物。在研究时间段内,中国东北地区NPP的年平均值为376 g(C) m-2,变化范围在324.15～424.86 g(C) m-2之间。火灾机制的引入使得LPJ-WHyMe模型对NEP的模拟能力进一步提高,即NEP年平均值为42.36 g(C) m-2,表明中国东北地区陆地生态系统总体表现为“碳汇”。中国东北地区年平均燃烧面积分数为0.84%,火灾碳排放量为42.41 g(C) m-2,整体上模型高估了燃烧面积值和火灾碳排放量,模型对东北地区火灾的模拟仍然存在一定的局限性。中国东北地区土壤温度与气温呈正相关关系,且各层土壤温度与气温的相关性随着深度的增加而减弱。中国东北地区土壤湿度与降水呈正相关关系,土壤湿度与气温呈反相关关系。上述结果表明LPJ-WHyMe模型模拟中国东北地区潜在植被分布和碳循环是有效的。     

基于风云三号气象卫星微波亮温资料反演东北地区土壤湿度及其对比分析

土壤湿度在陆面过程中发挥着重要作用,是联系陆地水循环和能量循环的纽带和关键环节。遥感技术可以实时地对土壤湿度进行长期、大区域动态监测,已成为监测土壤湿度的有效手段。本文基于风云三号气象卫星（FY3B）微波亮温资料,利用基于微波能量辐射传输方程的陆面参数反演模型（LPRM）反演了中国东北地区的土壤湿度（FY3B_LPRM）。把反演获得的FY3BLRPM土壤湿度与中国气象局农业气象站土壤湿度观测资料、NCEP和ERA-Interim土壤湿度再分析资料、欧洲空间局多卫星融合ECV（Essential Climate Variable）土壤湿度产品和国家卫星气象中心FY3B官方土壤湿度产品（FY3B_offical）进行了对比分析。结果表明:（1）本文反演的FY3B土壤湿度与农业气象站观测资料有较高的一致性;卫星土壤湿度整体上呈现自西向东逐渐增加的空间变化,与农业气象站观测资料较为一致;在季节变化上,两者高度相关,在大部分地区的相关系数都达到0.7以上。（2）在大兴安岭和东北三省东部等地表相对湿润的地区,FY3B_LPRM土壤湿度与NCEP、ERA-Interim和FY3B_offical土壤湿度呈现较强的负相关;再分析资料和FY3B_offical土壤湿度均无法反映该地区土壤干湿状况的季节性变化,甚至与观测资料呈反位相变化特征。FY3B_LPRM土壤湿度与欧洲空间局研发的多卫星融合ECV土壤湿度产品在绝大多数地区有较好的一致性。本文基于风云三号极轨气象卫星微波亮温反演的土壤湿度资料,可用于干旱监测、数值同化与天气预报、水文水资源等领域。     

CLM4.5模式对青藏高原土壤湿度的数值模拟及评估

本文利用1981～2016年的CRUNCEP资料（0.5°×0.5°）作为大气驱动数据,驱动CLM4.5（Community Land Model version 4.5）模式模拟了青藏高原地区1981～2016 年的土壤湿度时空变化。将模拟数据与台站观测资料、再分析资料（ERA-Interim和GLDAS-CLM）和微波遥感FY-3B/MWRI土壤湿度资料对比验证,表明了CLM4.5模拟资料可以合理再现青藏高原地区土壤湿度的空间分布和长期变化趋势。而且基于多种卫星遥感资料建立的较高分辨率（0.1°×0.1°）的青藏高原地表数据更加细致地刻画了土壤湿度的空间变化。对比结果表明:CLM4.5模拟土壤湿度与各个台站观测的时空变化一致,各层土壤湿度的模拟和观测均显著相关,且对浅层的模拟优于深层,但模拟结果比台站观测系统性偏大。模拟与再分析资料和微波遥感资料土壤湿度的空间分布具有一致性,均表现为从青藏高原的西北部向东南部逐渐增加的分布特点,三江源湿地和高原东南部为土壤湿度的高值区,柴达木盆地和新疆塔里木盆地的沙漠地区为低值区,土壤湿度由浅层向深层增加。土壤湿度的长期变化趋势基本表现为“变干—变湿”相间的带状分布,不同层次的土壤湿度变化趋势基本一致。模拟资料也合理地再现了夏季土壤湿度逐月的变化:高原西南地区的土壤湿度明显大范围增加,北部的柴达木盆地的干旱范围也明显的向北收缩,高原南部外围土壤湿度也明显增加,CLM4.5模拟土壤湿度比再分析资料和微波遥感资料更加细致地描述了夏季逐月土壤湿度空间分布及其变化特征。     

利用气象卫星资料对春季土壤水分进行监测的地面响应模型的研究

根据卫星遥感中利用热惯量法监测土壤水分的原理,考虑辐射平衡和潜热交换,分析了土壤热通量与地面辐射的关系及显热交换和潜热交换对土壤热通量的影响,建立土壤水分模型,为农业气象服务提供科学依据,也为利用卫星资料监测春季裸地土壤水分提供地面响应模型。     

Comparisons of Soil Moisture Datasets over the Tibetan Plateau and Application to the Simulation of Asia Summer Monsoon Onset

The influence of soil moisture on Asian monsoon simulation/prediction was less studied, partly due to a lack of available and reliable soil moisture datasets. In this study, we firstly compare several soil moisture datasets over the Tibetan Plateau, and find that the remote sensing products from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) can capture realistic temporal variations of soil moisture better than the two reanalyses (NCEP and ECMWF) during the pre-monsoon season...     

干旱半干旱区土壤湿度数值模拟研究进展

总结和回顾了干旱半干旱地区土壤湿度研究在区域气候变化研究过程中的重要性,详尽描述了干旱半干旱区土壤湿度数值模拟的研究现状。在过去几十年里,大型地面观测试验计划的开展、卫星遥感监测能力的加强促进了干旱半干旱地区陆面模式模拟土壤湿度能力的提高,推动了干旱半干旱地区土壤湿度数值模拟的研究进程。尤其是干旱半干旱地区气候观测站的建立,积累了长期宝贵的连续性观测数据,增强了检验卫星反演方法的能力,促进了陆面模式的参数化改进。近年来随着气象学、生态学以及水文学、土壤学等学科之间交叉合作的加强,气候变化背景下土壤湿度对碳、氮循环的影响研究得到越来越多的重视,尤其在干旱半干旱地区,局地碳通量和水分供应存在密切联系。因此,未来半干旱地区土壤湿度的研究不仅要开展观测计划,积累长期连续的高质量数据,改进卫星反演能力和模式参数化方案,而且要进一步深化和加强学科交叉内容的研究,分析气候变化背景下土壤湿度在生态学、水文学、土壤学等学科的变化形式和特点,多角度、多方向地开展和改进干旱半干旱地区土壤湿度的数值模拟研究。     

土壤湿度对卫星辐射率资料直接同化的影响

本研究利用WRF模式及其三维变分同化系统实现了对NOAA-16 AMSU-A微波资料的直接同化,针对2010年6月19日江西地区的一次强降水过程开展模拟与同化试验,并利用中国区域土壤湿度同化系统(CLSMDAS—China Land Soil Moisture Data Assimilation System)输出的土壤湿度值替换NCEP(National Centers for Environmental Prediction)资料中的土壤湿度,研究土壤湿度初值对辐射率资料直接同化中观测场与背景场偏差调整的影响。结果表明:采用CLSMDAS输出土壤湿度初值条件下模拟的亮温值与实际观测值更为接近,经过质量控制和偏差订正后更多的观测资料能够进入到同化系统中,说明改进的土壤湿度初值条件下观测算子的计算值得到正的调整,对低层地表通道的改进效果明显,尤其以50.3 GHz的窗区通道3的结果最为理想;针对此次强降水过程中24 h累积降水分布的模拟结果,CLSMDAS输出土壤湿度初值条件下同化AMSU-A资料,能够较为准确的把握整个雨带的走向、大雨以上级别降水的落区范围、降水中心落区及强度等。说明准确的土壤湿度初值能够改进卫星辐射率资料的同化结果,进而提高数值模式的模拟预报能力。     

Seasonal and interannual variability of carbon dioxide and water balances of a grassland

There is great international concern over the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide and its effect on vegetation and climate, and vice versa. Many studies on this issue are based on climate model calculations or indirect satellite observations. In contrast we present a 12-year study (1994–2005) on the net ecosystem exchange of carbon dioxide (NEE) and precipitation surplus (i.e., precipitation–evaporation) of a grassland area in the centre of the Netherlands. On basis of direct flux observations and a process-based model we study and quantify the carbon uptake via assimilation and carbon release via soil and plant respiration. It appears that nearly year-round the assimilation term dominates, which indicates an accumulation of carbon dioxide. The mean net carbon uptake for the 12-year period is about 3 tonnes C per hectare, but with a strong seasonal and interannual variability depending on the weather and water budget. This variability may severely hamper the accurate quantification of carbon storage by vegetation in our present climates and its projection for future climates.     

Carbon Sequestration, Soil Conservation, and the Kyoto Protocol: Summary of Implications

This paper discusses relationships between soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol is the first attempt to use the flexibility of the global market place to stabilize and reduce GHG emissions, mitigate climate change, and promote sustainable development. The protocol emerged first as a framework agreement, but through international negotiations it is progressing into sets of legal articles. These impose obligations on all signatories, but they also identify opportunities for improved environmental land management at local, national and international levels. This is particularly true for soil conservation, where the sequestration of carbon above and below ground increases soil organic matter, enhances soil fertility, and improves production, while concomitantly reducing atmospheric CO₂. It is a classic `win-win' situation. Both the evolving opportunities and the obligations under the Kyoto Protocol are discussed in the paper.     

Assessing Tower Flux Footprint Climatology and Scaling Between Remotely Sensed and Eddy Covariance Measurements

We describe pragmatic and reliable methods to examine the influence of patch-scale heterogeneities on the uncertainty in long-term eddy-covariance (EC) carbon flux data and to scale between the carbon flux estimates derived from land surface optical remote sensing and directly derived from EC flux measurements on the basis of the assessment of footprint climatology. Three different aged Douglas-fir stands with EC flux towers located on Vancouver Island and part of the Fluxnet Canada Research Network were selected. Monthly, annual and interannual footprint climatologies, unweighted or weighted by carbon fluxes, were produced by a simple model based on an analytical solution of the Eulerian advection-diffusion equation. The dimensions and orientation of the flux footprint depended on the height of the measurement, surface roughness length, wind speed and direction, and atmospheric stability. The weighted footprint climatology varied with the different carbon flux components and was asymmetrically distributed around the tower, and its size and spatial structure significantly varied monthly, seasonally and inter-annually. Gross primary productivity (GPP) maps at 10-m resolution were produced using a tower-mounted multi-angular spectroradiometer, combined with the canopy structural information derived from airborne laser scanning (Lidar) data. The horizontal arrays of footprint climatology were superimposed on the 10-m-resolution GPP maps. Monthly and annual uncertainties in EC flux caused by variations in footprint climatology of the 59-year-old Douglas-fir stand were estimated to be approximately 15–20% based on a comparison of GPP estimates derived from EC and remote sensing measurements, and on sensor location bias analysis. The footprint-variation-induced uncertainty in long-term EC flux measurements was mainly dependent on the site spatial heterogeneity. The bias in carbon flux estimates using spatially-explicit ecological models or tower-based remote sensing at finer scales can be estimated by comparing the footprint-weighted and EC-derived flux estimates. This bias is useful for model parameter optimizing. The optimization of parameters in remote-sensing algorithms or ecosystem models using satellite data will, in turn, increase the accuracy in the upscaled regional carbon flux estimation.     

Detecting a Terrestrial Biosphere Sink for Carbon Dioxide: Interannual Ecosystem Modeling for the Mid-1980s

There is considerable uncertainty as to whether interannual variability in climate and terrestrial ecosystem production is sufficient to explain observed variation in atmospheric carbon content over the past 20–30 years. In this paper, we investigated the response of net CO₂ exchange in terrestrial ecosystems to interannual climate variability (1983 to 1988) using global satellite observations as drivers for the NASA-CASA (Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach) simulation model. This computer model of net ecosystem production (NEP) is calibrated for interannual simulations driven by monthly satellite vegetation index data (NDVI) from the NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) at 1 degree spatial resolution. Major results from NASA-CASA simulations suggest that from 1985 to 1988, the northern middle-latitude zone (between 30 and 60°N) was the principal region driving progressive annual increases in global net primary production (NPP; i.e., the terrestrial biosphere sink for carbon). The average annual increase in NPP over this predominantly northern forest zone was on the order of +0.4 Pg (10¹⁵ g) C per year. This increase resulted mainly from notable expansion of the growing season for plant carbon fixation toward the zonal latitude extremes, a pattern uniquely demonstrated in our regional visualization results. A net biosphere source flux of CO₂ in 1983–1984, coinciding with an El Niño event, was followed by a major recovery of global NEP in 1985 which lasted through 1987 as a net carbon sink of between 0.4 and 2.6 Pg C per year. Analysis of model controls on NPP and soil heterotrophic CO₂ fluxes (R_h) suggests that regional warming in northern forests can enhance ecosystem production significantly. In seasonally dry tropical zones, periodic drought and temperature drying effects may carry over with at least a two-year lag time to adversely impact ecosystem production. These yearly patterns in our model-predicted NEP are consistent in magnitude with the estimated exchange of CO₂ by the terrestrial biosphere with the atmosphere, as determined by previous isotopic (¹³C) deconvolution analysis. Ecosystem simulation results can help further target locations where net carbon sink fluxes have occurred in the past or may be verified in subsequent field studies.     

European CO2 fluxes from atmospheric inversions using regional and global transport models

Approximately half of human-induced carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions are taken up by the land and ocean, and the rest stays in the atmosphere, increasing the global concentration and acting as a major greenhouse-gas (GHG) climate-forcing element. Although GHG mitigation is now in the political arena, the exact spatial distribution of the land sink is not well known. In this paper, an estimation of mean European net ecosystem exchange (NEE) carbon fluxes for the period 1998–2001 is performed with three mesoscale and two global transport models, based on the integration of atmospheric CO₂ measurements into the same Bayesian synthesis inverse approach. A special focus is given to sub-continental regions of Europe making use of newly available CO₂ concentration measurements in this region. Inverse flux estimates from the five transport models are compared with independent flux estimates from four ecosystem models. All inversions detect a strong annual carbon sink in the southwestern part of Europe and a source in the northeastern part. Such a dipole, although robust with respect to the network of stations used, remains uncertain and still to be confirmed with independent estimates. Comparison of the seasonal variations of the inversion-based net land biosphere fluxes (NEP) with the NEP predicted by the ecosystem models indicates a shift of the maximum uptake period, from June in the ecosystem models to July in the inversions. This study thus improves on the understanding of the carbon cycle at sub-continental scales over Europe, demonstrating that the methodology for understanding regional carbon cycle is advancing, which increases its relevance in terms of issues related to regional mitigation policies.     

中国土壤湿度的分布与变化 I. 多种资料间的比较

土壤湿度是影响气候的重要因子之一, 但观测资料的欠缺制约着该领域研究工作的开展。本文汇总了目前国际上运用较为广泛的四套土壤湿度资料: ERA40和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料、全球土壤湿度计划资料(GSWP2)、以及NCAR最近完成的利用观测资料强迫“通用陆面模式”CLM所产生的土壤湿度资料。在此基础上, 利用中国区域观测的19年 (1981～1999年) 的土壤湿度和13年 (1992～2004年) 的土壤相对湿度资料, 对四套资料在中国区域的可靠性进行了分析和比较, 主要结论如下: 四套资料基本揭示出土壤湿度的空间分布, GSWP2揭示了四套资料最多的共性, 即东北、 华南湿, 华北、 西北干, 土壤湿度基本由西北向东北和东南呈梯度增加的特征; GSWP2较好地描述了土壤湿度的季节循环; ERA40土壤湿度的年际变化与观测相关最好; 观测资料和四套资料都表明前期降水会增加土壤湿度, 但土壤湿度异常对后期降水的影响则不显著; 气温与土壤湿度的关系较复杂, 不同的区域有不同的特征。     

植被温度条件指数在土壤墒情遥感监测中的应用

利用多年极轨气象卫星遥感资料,在计算出植被条件指数和温度条件指数的基础上,计算了遥感监测土壤墒情的植被温度条件指数(TV)。通过实测土壤湿度和TV的散点图,可以得到土壤墒情遥感模型的干旱等级指标,可用于干旱等级定性监测;通过建立土壤湿度和TV的回归方程,可进行土壤墒情定量监测。该方法兼有植被条件指数和温度条件指数的优点,且计算简单,对地面气象要素依赖性小,实时性好,在作物生长旺盛期,其定量反演0~30 cm土壤墒情精度平均可达80%以上,可以替代作物缺水指数法。     

从MODIS资料提取土壤湿度信息的主成分分析方法

沿袭了遥感地物分类中K-L变换思想, 以归一化处理后的遥感数据, 结合地面土壤湿度观测数据, 应用主成分分析方法, 采用MODIS不同红外波段数据, 通过相关关系计算, 在监测结果中融合MODIS具有250 m分辨率的第2波段数据, 建立了青海省多维特征空间土壤湿度监测模型。模型的建立克服了热惯量法监测干旱需多时相遥感数据的缺陷, 经初步检验, 此模型可以在一定精度范围之内监测表层土壤湿度, 具有业务应用潜力。