青藏高原典型下垫面地表能量通量的模型估算与验证

青藏高原地区地表能量通量的估算与验证对高原及其周边地区能量和水循环研究具有重要意义,地表能量平衡系统SEBS(Surface Energy Balance System)模型为研究高原非均匀地表区域地表能量通量提供了一种行之有效的方法。基于中国科学院那曲高寒气候环境观测研究站(简称那曲站)、中国科学院纳木错多圈层综合观测研究站(简称纳木错站)和中国科学院珠穆朗玛大气与环境综合观测研究站(简称珠峰站) 2008年辐射资料、大气边界层塔站观测资料,结合MODIS卫星数据,利用SEBS模型估算地表能量通量,并用站点地表能量通量观测资料进行验证。结果表明,模型估算的感热通量和土壤热通量与站点实测值具有较好的一致性,且感热通量和土壤热通量的估算精度明显优于潜热通量;感热通量的估算精度最高,那曲站、纳木错站和珠峰站的均方根误差分别为54. 98,37. 37和27. 10 W·m~(-2);而模型估算的潜热通量验证结果偏差较大和站点实测数据存在"能量不闭合"问题相关。鉴于在地表能量通量观测中广泛存在"能量不闭合"的问题,利用波文比校正方法校正站点实测潜热通量。研究表明波文比校正方法可以明显改善地表通量观测数据"能量不闭合"的问题,那曲站、纳木错站和珠峰站的能量闭合率分别提高了19. 4%,21. 4%和19. 1%;与原始站点实测潜热通量相比,校正后的潜热通量与SEBS模型估算结果一致性较好,3个站点潜热通量的均方根误差分别减少了6. 78,33. 48和29. 30 W·m~(-2)。     

青藏高原东部不同季节积雪过程对地表能量和土壤水热影响的观测研究

选取青藏高原(下称高原)东部玛曲、玛多和垭口3个野外站点的观测资料,针对不连续积雪过程,研究高原东部不同季节的积雪过程对地表能量和土壤水热的影响。结果表明:受积雪高反照率的影响,高原东部地区各季节降雪后净短波辐射减小,净辐射较降雪前减小60%～140%;积雪积累期内感热、潜热及土壤热通量均减小,感热通量和土壤热通量出现负值。春、秋两季积雪过程中,能量以感热、潜热和土壤热通量三种形式分配;冬季积雪过程中能量以感热和土壤热通量分配为主,潜热通量较小,日均值在10 W·m~(-2)左右;而夏季积雪消融期潜热通量较大,日均值可达80 W·m~(-2)左右。各季节积雪的反复积累和消融过程对大气及土壤均以降温作用为主。秋季降雪后,气温和浅层土壤温度降低,当土壤温度降到冰点以下时,土壤提前进入冻结期;而春季降雪后,则可能使得正在发生融化的土壤又再次冻结。冬季晴天积雪过程中,在积雪积累期,积雪对土壤起增温作用,0～20 cm土壤温度日均值升高1～2℃,导致浅层冻结土壤融化,土壤含水量略增加,在消融期,积雪对土壤仍起降温作用;而冬季阴天积雪对土壤均为冷却作用。夏季积雪积累期较短,降雪对土壤同样起明显的降温作用。     

国产光学型大孔径闪烁仪的技术性能分析

利用2009—2012年在北京密云、青海阿柔、河南济源、甘肃张掖、河北馆陶和沽源的野外对比试验数据,分析了国产光学型大孔径闪烁仪的观测精度、稳定性和一致性,为国产光学型大孔径闪烁仪的后续生产和改进提供科学依据。分析结果表明:(1)以德国BLS900闪烁仪观测值作为参考值,张掖巴吉滩3套和沽源站5套国产大孔径闪烁仪样机感热通量观测值的平均均方根误差分别为19.91 W·m~(-2)和9.81 W·m~(-2);样机感热通量观测值均值与涡动相关仪观测值比较,均方根误差分别为21.08 W·m~(-2)和12.87 W·m~(-2),表明国产大孔径闪烁仪具有较好的观测精度;(2)国产大孔径闪烁仪在高温、低温、高湿或低湿的恶劣天气条件下以及长时间序列的观测均具有较好的稳定性;(3)样机观测感热通量之间的回归斜率差异较大,为6%,相关系数大于0.98,表明国产大孔径闪烁仪的一致性较好。综上所述,国产光学型大孔径闪烁仪基本达到了国外同类仪器的性能水平。     

基于陆面模式Noah-MP的不同参数化方案在半干旱区的适用性

针对陆面模式Noah-MP对兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站（SACOL）2009年8月地表热通量模拟值偏差大的问题,通过分析相关物理过程和模拟试验来探究偏差的来源,并确定合适的参数化方案:采用Chen97方案计算感热输送系数可以改善感热通量的模拟;采用Jarvis气孔阻抗方案能增大植被蒸腾,改进模式对潜热通量的模拟效果,同时也使热通量在感热和潜热间的分配比例合理;采用LP92方案可减小土壤蒸发阻抗并有利于土壤蒸发,使得模式对潜热通量的模拟效果变好。不同参数化方案的组合试验表明:同时采用2组或3组新的参数化方案组合可以进一步减小模拟的地表感热和潜热通量的均方根误差,但是土壤湿度和温度的模拟效果并没有同步改善。     

NCAR_CLM系列模式对全球近50 a陆面状况的模拟及其比较分析

基于普林斯顿大学1948-2006年3h一次、1 °×1 °空间分辨率的全球陆面驱动数据,利用NCAR系列陆面模式CLM3.0、CLM3.5、CLM4.0,分别对全球近50 a的陆面状况进行了offline模拟试验.在此基础上,对比分析了不同版本模式对全球土壤温度、土壤湿度、地表感热、潜热和地表径流气候态的模拟结果,揭示了不同版本模式对全球陆面变量模拟的差异及主要特征.结果表明:1)CLM系列模式模拟的土壤温度、湿度在全球范围内存在一定差异.与CLM4.0相比,CLM3.0和CLM3.5模拟的1月、7月的浅层和深层土壤温度在北半球中高纬度存在明显的暖偏差.CLM3.0模拟的土壤湿度在北半球高纬地区均存在不同程度的偏湿,而在热带及中纬度地区则以偏干为主,尤其是对热带地区深层土壤湿度的模拟存在严重偏干的现象;相比之下,CLM3.5模拟的浅层土壤湿度仅在北半球高纬地区存在偏湿的现象;二者对深层土壤湿度的模拟差异较小.2)CLM系列模式模拟的地表能量通量和地表水文变量也存在较明显的差异.模式对潜热通量和感热通量的明显差异主要出现在热带地区,与CLM4.0相比,CLM3.0模拟的潜热(感热)通量总体偏小(大),而CLM3.5模拟的潜热(感热)通量以偏大(小)为主.CLM3.0模拟的地表径流在热带地区明显偏大,CLM3.5在一定程度上改善了上述区域径流偏大的问题,但过分低估了上述地区的地表径流.3)模式模拟结果的差异具有明显的季节变化和区域性特点.总体而言,CLM3.0对不同地区的土壤湿度和冠层蒸散的季节变化模拟都存在较大偏差,其模拟的土壤湿度明显偏低,而对冠层蒸腾作用在冠层蒸散过程中所做的贡献估计不足;CLM3.5和CLM4.0对上述结果有了较明显的改进.对于其他陆面因子的季节变化而言,CLM3.0的模拟能力也存在一定程度的不足,而CLM3.5和CLM4.0的模拟结果则更为合理.     

青藏高原季节性冻土湿度模拟及参数优化——以黑河上游为例

利用青藏高原东北部地区阿柔冻融观测站2013年5月至2014年11月观测资料,对通用陆面过程模式(CLM4.0)和动态陆面过程模式(DLM)青藏高原高寒地区土壤湿度模拟性能进行了评估。结果显示两种模式均能够较好的反映浅层(40 cm)土壤湿度动态变化,然而显著低估非冻结期土壤湿度;通过土壤有机质含量对土壤湿度模拟敏感性分析发现模式模拟土壤湿度偏干可能与模式中土壤有机质方案不足有关。在此基础上改进DLM模式土壤有机质和冻土液态水渗透方案,实验结果表明新参数化方案显著提高了高寒、高有机质含量地区模式土壤湿度模拟,平均偏差(BIAS)、均方根误差(RMSE),均方差(MSE)和相关系数(R)分别达到0.032 m~3·m~(-3),0.078 m~3·m~(-3),0.010 m~3·m~(-3)和0.866。     

黄土高原土壤湿度对地表能量和大气边界层影响的观测研究

利用黄土高原区域甘肃平凉地区陆面过程与灾害天气观测研究站2016—2017年夏季(6—8月)晴好天气下的观测资料,定量分析了平凉地区土壤湿度在干、中、湿三种不同状况下对地表辐射和地表能量分配及大气边界层的影响,并根据总体变化趋势,将土壤湿度进一步分为干、中区间(0. 158～0. 220 m~3·m~(-3))和中、湿区间(0. 179～0. 325 m~3·m~(-3)),与波文比、感热通量、潜热通量进行相关性分析,从而探究土壤湿度通过影响地表能量分配和大气边界层进而影响降水的可能物理机制。结果表明:(1)土壤湿度变化对反照率影响相对较小,对波文比影响显著,主要是影响感热、潜热变化,即影响地表能量分配过程。随着土壤湿度增加,潜热增大,感热减小,波文比显著降低;土壤湿度变化对地表净辐射影响显著,主要影响净长波辐射变化,随着土壤湿度增加,净短波辐射呈现略微增加,净长波辐射显著增加。(2)土壤湿度分区间分析结果显示,土壤湿度在干、中区间(0. 158～0. 220 m~3·m~(-3))对潜热通量以及边界层高度的影响相比土壤湿度在中、湿区间(0. 179～0. 325 m~3·m~(-3))的影响更大,即土壤偏干情况下,地表通量变化和大气边界层发展更显著。此次观测数据定量分析结果与理论机理较为一致,表明该观测数据的可靠性,可为数值模式在黄土高原区域的模拟提供重要的数据基础。     

青藏高原地区不同下垫面陆面过程的数值模拟研究

利用陆面过程模式Common Land Model(CoLM),选取青藏高原上3个不同下垫面观测站(藏东南站、纳木错站和珠峰站)的观测资料,对这3个野外观测站进行了单点数值模拟试验。根据3个测站的试验数据,对模式中土壤孔隙度和饱和导水率进行了优化,针对青藏高原地区土壤层薄的特点,对模式中土壤分层方案进行了调整。结果表明,调整分层方案后的CoLM模式对3个测站土壤湿度的模拟性能较原分层方案有明显提高,平均偏差均减小0.014以上。但是与观测值相比,藏东南站土壤湿度的模拟整体偏低,纳木错站和珠峰站则整体偏高。对土壤温度而言,3个测站模拟与观测的相关系数都达到了0.9以上,珠峰站偏差较大,调整分层方案后模拟的偏差有一定的改进。模式较好地模拟了3个测站的净辐射、感热通量和潜热通量的日变化和季节变化情况,调整分层方案后潜热通量的改进最为明显。     

基于自动站资料的WRF-EnSRF陆面同化系统的效果检验及应用

基于集合平方根滤波方法(En SRF)同化方法和NOAH陆面模式的WRF-En SRF陆面同化系统,同化了江苏省70个自动站资料进行试验,研究加入不同的同化资料(地表温度、10 cm土壤温度、20 cm土壤温度)及初始扰动强度的大小对陆面数据同化系统性能的影响,以及对不同区域(降水大值区和降水小值区)的分析场进行效果对比,并且检验了同化系统在一次典型的梅雨锋暴雨的同化效果,证明了这个系统的有效性和可行性。对于资料选取试验,比较全场平均的同化时刻分析场模拟观测相对真实观测的均方根误差可以得到:同化地表温度资料并且初始扰动强度1 K的时候同化效果最理想。对于选定的降水大值区和降水小值区来讲,降水大值区的土壤温度和土壤湿度分析场更加接近于真实场。运用于一次梅雨锋暴雨的同化实验,对于最后一个同化时次的分析场作为背景场做集合预报,最终证明预报结果是有效的。土壤温度、土壤湿度、地表温度和近地面风场的预报结果都较用NCEP再分析资料直接做预报作为控制试验的结果有不同程度的改进。这说明该系统应用于实际同化中的性能较为良好,可以应用于实际土壤湿度与温度的预报。     

东亚区域陆面过程方案Noah和Noah-MP的比较评估

文章对天气研究和预报(WRF)模式中两套陆面物理过程参数化方案:Noah及Noah-MP,在整个东亚区域做了评估。评估时间分别为2013年1和7月。通过对地表通量、2 m温度、10 m风速、地表温度、第一层(5 cm)及第二层(25 cm)土壤含水量和第一层(5 cm)及第三层(70 cm)土壤温度的偏差和均方根误差的评估,发现:(1)与Noah陆面参数化方案相比,冬季,Noah-MP方案模拟的地表感热通量在大部分区域偏低,而对地表潜热通量的模拟在大部分区域偏高;夏季,Noah-MP方案对感热通量的模拟值,在印度次大陆、中国西部和相邻区域以及中国东北及其以北地区偏低,其他地区偏高,而对地表潜热通量的模拟在大部分地区偏高,而且幅度明显高于1月。(2)Noah-MP方案提高了土壤水分和土壤温度在东亚区域的整体模拟效果。(3)相较于Noah方案,Noah-MP方案模拟的2 m温度和10 m风的误差较小,特别对印度大陆和高寒地区的2 m温度模拟有较大幅度的提高。此研究证明了Noah-MP在东亚区域的应用优势,为WRF/Noah-MP在未来的进一步业务应用提供了一定的参考依据。     

Key results and implications from phase 1(c) of the Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parametrization Schemes

 Using atmospheric forcing data generated from a general circulation climate model, sixteen land surface schemes participating in the Project for the Intercomparison of Land-surface Parametrization Schemes (PILPS) were run off-line to equilibrium using forcing data from a GCM representative of a tropical forest and a mid-latitude grassland grid point. The values for each land surface parameter (roughness length, minimum stomatal resistance, soil depth etc.) were provided. Results were quality controlled and analyzed, focusing on the scatter simulated amongst the models. There were large differences in how the models’ partitioned available energy between sensible and latent heat. Annually averaged, simulations for the tropical forest ranged by 79 1 3;W m^-2 for the sensible heat flux and 80 W m^-2 for the latent heat flux. For the grassland, simulations ranged by 34 W m^-2 for the sensible heat flux and 27 W m^-2 for the latent heat flux. Similarly large differences were found for simulated runoff and soil moisture and at the monthly time scale. The models’ simulation of annually averaged effective radiative temperature varied with a range, between all the models, of 1.4 K for tropical forest and 2.2 K for the grassland. The simulation of latent and sensible heat fluxes by a standard ‘bucket’ models was anomalous although this could be corrected by an additional resistance term. These results imply that the current land surface models do not agree on the land surface climate when the atmospheric forcing and surface parameters are prescribed. The nature of the experimental design, it being offline and with artificial forcing, generally precludes judgements concerning the relative quality of any specific model. Although these results were produced de-coupled from a host model, they do cast doubt on the reliability of land surface schemes. It is therefore a priority to resolve the disparity in the simulations, understand the reasons behind the scatter and to determine whether this lack of agreement in de-coupled tests is reproduced in coupled experiments. Received: 15 October 1997 / Accepted: 22 April 1999     

土壤热异常对地表能量平衡影响初探

将来自土壤深部的热通量引入off line的陆面过程模式 (NCAR—LSM ) ,通过长达 2a的数值试验对比分析了它对各层次土壤温度和地表能量平衡的影响。　　在土壤底部引入 5W /m2 的热通量使底层土壤显著升温 ,但升温随着接近表层而迅速衰减。积分 3个月后 ,由地下进入地表的热流量增幅可达 1W/m2 以上 ,并持续增大到 5W /m2 ,地表最大升温约 0 .5K ,同时地表感热、蒸发潜热及长波辐射通量均有 1W /m2 左右的正异常 ;若将土壤热传导系数放大一个量级以加速热量交换 ,则地表升温提高到 1K以上 ,长波辐射增加 3W /m2 以上 ,超过了气溶胶全球平均的辐射效应。结果表明 :一定量值的土壤热异常对地表能量平衡和短期气候变化 (10 -1～ 10 1a)有着不可忽略的影响。同时 ,深入的资料分析、完善的陆面过程模式以及它与大气模式的耦合试验也是亟待进行的相关工作。     

青藏高原湿地土壤冻结、融化期间的陆面过程特征

利用青藏高原中部玉树隆宝湿地2015年7月-2016年7月的观测资料,分析了土壤冻结、融化前后土壤温、湿度和地表能量收支特征,结果表明：冻土持续时期为12月至次年4月,深层土壤的冻结较浅层土壤滞后,融化过程快于冻结过程,5-40 cm土壤全部冻结历时51 d,全部融化历时19 d。土壤体积含水量年变化幅度达0.6 m³/m³。冻结过程5-40 cm土壤体积含水量下降,融化过程5-10 cm土壤体积含水量升高。土壤冻结之后,感热通量白天的值升高,潜热通量白天的值降低,净辐射和土壤热通量均降低,土壤热通量日变化幅度增大。土壤融化之后,潜热通量、净辐射和土壤热通量白天的值升高。地表反照率、鲍恩比、土壤热导率和土壤热扩散率冻结后增大融化后减小,土壤热容量冻结后减小融化后增大。     

土壤质地对中国区域陆面过程模拟的影响

利用陆面过程模式(CLM3.5)和中国区域两种土壤质地数据(分别来自第二次中国土壤调查SNSS和联合国粮食农业组织FAO),研究了土壤质地变化对于模式模拟的陆表水热变量的影响。结果显示,土壤质地对土壤水文学变量的影响远大于对土壤热力学变量的影响,尤其是对于饱和土壤含水量和饱和水力传导率的影响。对于模式的输出,土壤质地影响比较明显的有土壤湿度、总径流和土壤渗透等水文学变量以及地表潜热、地表感热和土壤热通量等热力学变量,而影响相对较小的有地面吸收的太阳辐射和地表反照率。同时,发现基于SNSS模拟的土壤湿度与站点观测值更加接近。因此,本研究认为基于SNSS土壤质地数据可以有效地改进模式模拟结果,建议以后在陆面模式试验中尽可能使用以观测为基础的SNSS土壤质地数据。     

Linking the Atmospheric Boundary Layer to the Amundsen Gulf Sea-Ice Cover: A Mesoscale to Synoptic-Scale Perspective from Winter to Summer 2008

The link between the sea-ice cover of the Amundsen Gulf and the overlying atmospheric boundary layer was explored on a weekly timestep from winter to summer 2008. The total sea-ice cover was around 97% (3% leads) from 7 January to 21 April. From 28 April to 12 May, the total sea-ice cover approached 100%. From May 19, the total sea-ice declined rapidly to its July minimum of 3%. During the winter, a turbulent internal boundary layer (IBL), attributed to the upward flux of sensible heat (mean = 46 W m⁻²), was present in most of the mean daily potential temperature profiles. The mean latent heat flux was 1.7 Wm⁻². A turbulent IBL was also present in most of the mean daily profiles for early spring. Surface fluxes were not estimated. During late spring and early summer, a stable IBL, attributed to the downward flux of sensible heat (mean = −19 W m⁻²), was present in most of the potential temperature profiles. Both downward and upward fluxes of latent heat occurred in this period (means = −3.3 and 1.1 W m⁻²). The sensible heat flux estimates are consistent with the results of others; however, the latent heat flux estimates may be too small due to condensation/deposition within the IBL. The unconsolidated nature of the pack ice in the Amundsen Gulf, and the low sea-surface temperatures following break-up, were critical factors controlling the presence and type of IBL.     

土壤热异常影响地表能量平衡的个例分析和数值模拟

The statistical relationship between soil thermal anomaly and short-term climate change is presented based on a typical case study. Furthermore, possible physical mechanisms behind the relationship are revealed through using an off-line land surface model with a reasonable soil thermal forcing at the bottom of the soil layer.In the first experiment, the given heat flux is 5 W m-2 at the bottom of the soil layer (in depth of 6.3 m)for 3 months, while only a positive ground temperature anomaly of 0.06℃ can be found compared to the control run. The anomaly, however, could reach 0.65℃ if the soil thermal conductivity was one order of magnitude larger. It could be even as large as 0.81℃ assuming the heat flux at bottom is 10 W m-2. Meanwhile, an increase of about 10 W m-2 was detected both for heat flux in soil and sensible heat on land surface, which is not neglectable to the short-term climate change. The results show that considerable response in land surface energy budget could be expected when the soil thermal forcing reaches a certain spatial-tem poral scale. Therefore, land surface models should not ignore the upward heat flux from the bottom of the soil layer. Moreover, integration for a longer period of time and coupled land-atmosphere model are also necessary for the better understanding of this issue.     

Land response to atmosphere at different resolutions in the common land model over East Asia

Towards a better understanding of hydrological interactions between the land surface and atmosphere, land surface models are routinely used to simulate hydro-meteorological fluxes. However, there is a lack of observations available for model forcing, to estimate the hydro-meteorological fluxes in East Asia. In this study, Common Land Model (CLM) was used in offline-mode during the summer monsoon period of 2006 in East Asia, with different forcings from Asiaflux, Korea Land Data Assimilation System (KLDAS), and Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS), at point and regional scales, separately. The CLM results were compared with observations from Asiaflux sites. The estimated net radiation showed good agreement, with r =0.99 for the point scale and 0.85 for the regional scale. The estimated sensible and latent heat fluxes using Asiaflux and KLDAS data indicated reasonable agreement, with r = 0.70. The estimated soil moisture and soil temperature showed similar patterns to observations, although the estimated water fluxes using KLDAS showed larger discrepancies than those of Asiaflux because of scale mismatch. The spatial distribution of hydro-meteorological fluxes according to KLDAS for East Asia were compared to the CLM results with GLDAS, and the GLDAS provided online. The spatial distributions of CLM with KLDAS were analogous to CLM with GLDAS, and the standalone GLDAS data. The results indicate that KLDAS is a good potential source of high spatial resolution forcing data. Therefore, the KLDAS is a promising alternative product, capable of compensating for the lack of observations and low resolution grid data for East Asia.     

Comparative analysis of different underlying surfaces using a high-resolution assimilation dataset in semi-arid areas in China

To study the land surface and atmospheric meteorological characteristics of non-uniform underlying surfaces in the semi-arid area of Northeast China, we use a “High-Resolution Assimilation Dataset of the water-energy cycle in China (HRADC)”. The grid points of three different underlying surfaces were selected, and their meteorological elements were averaged for each type (i.e., mixed forest, grassland, and cropland). For 2009, we compared and analyzed the different components of leaf area index (LAI), soil temperature and moisture, surface albedo, precipitation, and surface energy for various underlying surfaces in Northeast China. The results indicated that the LAI of mixed forest and cropland during the summer is greater than 5 m² m^?2 and below 2.5 m² m^?2 for grassland; in the winter and spring seasons, the Green Vegetation Fraction (GVF) is below 30%. The soil temperature and moisture both vary greatly. Throughout the year, the mixed forest is dominated by latent heat evaporation; in grasslands and croplands, the sensible heat flux and the latent heat flux are approximately equal, and the GVF contributed more to latent heat flux than sensible heat flux in the summer. This study compares meteorological characteristics between three different underlying surfaces of the semi-arid area of Northeast China and makes up for the insufficiency of purely using observations for the study. This research is important for understanding the water-energy cycle and transport in the semi-arid area.     

CLM在淮河流域数值模拟试验

文中利用 1998年HUCEX资料对CommonLandModel(CLM )的模拟能力进行了验证。结果表明 ,CLM不但能够较好地模拟陆 气间各种能量通量 ,而且还能模拟出土壤中温度的时空分布特征。春季 ,CLM对潜热模拟偏高 ,从而引起土壤温度模拟偏低 ;而在夏季 ,潜热模拟偏低 ,在旱地下垫面由于净辐射模拟偏低使土壤温度的模拟仍然偏低 ,水田下垫面的土壤温度模拟趋向合理。夏季的水田无论在对大气的能量输送还是土壤的温度分布上 ,都有其特殊性 ,需在陆面模式中予以特殊的考虑。     

General Characteristics of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over a Flaw Lead Polynya Region in Winter and Spring

A time series of microwave radiometric profiles over Arctic Canada’s Cape Bathurst (70°N, 124.5°W) flaw lead polynya region from 1 January to 30 June, 2008 was examined to determine the general characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer in winter and spring. A surface based or elevated inversion was present on 97% of winter (January–March) days, and on 77% of spring (April–June) days. The inversion was the deepest in the first week of March (≈1100 m), and the shallowest in June (≈250 m). The mean temperature and absolute humidity from the surface to the top of the inversion averaged 250.1 K (−23.1°C), and 0.56 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻³ in winter, and in spring averaged 267.5 K (−5.6°C), and 2.77 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻³. The median winter atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) potential temperature profile provided evidence of a shallow, weakly stable internal boundary layer (surface to 350 m) topped by an inversion (350–1,000 m). The median spring profile showed a shallow, near-neutral internal boundary layer (surface to 350 m) under an elevated inversion (600–800 m). The median ABL absolute humidity profiles were weakly positive in winter and negative in spring. Estimates of the convergence of sensible heat and water vapour from the surface that could have produced the turbulent internal boundary layers of the median profiles were 0.67 MJ m⁻² and 13.1 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻² for the winter season, and 0.66 MJ m⁻² and 33.4 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻² for the spring season. With fetches of 10–100 km, these accumulations may have resulted from a surface sensible heat flux of 15–185 W m⁻², plus a surface moisture flux of 0.001–0.013 mm h⁻¹ (or a latent heat flux of 0.7–8.8 W m⁻²) in winter, and 0.003–0.033 mm h⁻¹ (or a latent heat flux of 2–22 W m⁻²) in spring.