陆面模拟中植被辐射传输参数化方案研究

在冠层二流辐射传输模式基础上新发展了一个描述太阳短波辐射在植被中传输的冠层四流辐射传输模式.冠层四流辐射传输模式是在大气辐射传输理论的基础上得到一组描述短波辐射在植被中传输过程的冠层辐射传输基本方程,引进大气中求解辐射传输方程的四流近似解法,并求得冠层四流辐射传输方程的解析解.方程中各项参量能够反映叶子或冠层特殊的几何和光学特征.冠层向上、向下辐射通量取决于冠层散射相函数、叶子在入射光方向投影面积、单个叶子反射率和透射率、叶面积指数以及直射光入射太阳高度角等.四流模式计算叶子水平倾角时对太阳短波辐射的反照率,与二流模式结果比较可以验证模式的理论推导和建模都是正确的:计算结果的比较,表明四流模式在水平叶角分布时计算的冠层反照率与二流模式结果一致,同时直射光从任何太阳高度角入射的冠层反照率结果也一致,从而证明发展的冠层四流辐射传输模式是成功的.模拟试验中将两种模型同时耦合到同一个陆面过程模式中进行比较试验,结果表明,冠层四流辐射传输模式能够得到更精确的植被反照率,从而使得陆面模式计算的地表吸收的净太阳辐射通量更接近于观测值.     

陆面过程中冠层四流辐射传输模式的模拟性能检验

利用实际观测资料检验新发展的植被冠层四流辐射传输模式的模拟性能.将浙江大学田间观测数据用于模式试验,其结果表明:在可见光波段,因叶片散射率值较小,四流模式和二流模式模拟结果差别不大,模拟的冠层反照率都接近观测值.这表明在可见光波段,二流模式已经能够较好模拟芯层反照率,四流模式能够提高的精度范围有限;在近红外波段,因叶片散射率值较大,两个模式模拟结果差别较明显,四流模式模拟的冠层反照率相对二流模式的模拟结果更接近观测值.利用第2次雪模式比较计划SNOWMIP资料和改进的10层陆面模式BATS进行耦合试验,将四流模式以及二流模式均耦合到该陆面模式中,其目的是为考察四流模式对陆面模式模拟地表反射太刚短波辐射通量的影响.耦合后得到的结果与SNOWMIP中加拿大BERMS草地站和森林站的观测资料进行了对比.对比结果表明,采用网流模式、二流模式、BATS原辐射传输模式后,耦合四流模式的陆面模式模拟地表反射太阳短波辐射通量最接近观测值.说明采用四流模式能够改善陆面模式对地表反射太阳短波辐射通啦的模拟.     

短波辐射研究概述

主要阐述太阳短波辐射研究在陆面过程及陆气相互研究中的重要性,全面回顾了有关短波辐射的研究成果,结合目前在陆面过程领域具有代表性的短波辐射研究方案,指出当前在这一领域研究中有待于解决的问题和发展趋势,为进一步研究太阳短波辐射状况和特征提供科学依据.     

一个简单的陆面过程模式

本模式为针对大气环流模式所发展的一个简单的陆面过程模式，它包含:（1）地表温度计算，（2）冠层叶面贮水量和土壤湿度计算，（3）陆面与大气之间的水分和能量交换。对于表面温度和含水量的计算，采用的是联立求解计算方案，即耦合计算。植被冠层叶面的辐射特性和冠层形态对冠层中的辐射交换的影响得到有效和尽可能简单的模拟。另外，植被的气孔阻抗、表面与大气之间的水热交换通量和土壤中的水热输导作了较为细致的描写。利用此模式开展了对两个不同覆盖类型的陆面过程的模拟，模拟和观测的表面通量、温度和湿度较为相近。     

陆面过程模式TBLSHAW的设计及其在黄土高原地区的模拟研究

为了改善陆面过程模式在半干旱地区的模拟能力,在SHAW(Simultaneous Heat and Water Model)模式和CoLM(Common Land Surface Model)模式参数化方案基础上,结合黄土高原SACOL站(Semi-Arid Climate and Environment Observatory of Lanzhou University)得到的部分土壤和近地层的研究结果,利用SHAW模式的动力框架,发展了一个新的陆面过程模式TBLSHAW(Two-Big-Leaf-SHAW)。该模式由一层植被、多层土壤和湍流边界层构成。在植被层主要采取双大叶模型计算能量平衡;土壤层利用水热耦合传输模型计算土壤温度和湿度,并包含了冻融、蒸发及降水渗透等物理过程;湍流边界层采取莫宁—奥布霍夫理论计算湍流通量。最后利用SACOL站获取的观测资料,对TBLSHAW模式进行了模拟检验。结果表明,TBLSHAW模式能够合理地模拟半干旱地区各项陆面过程特征的变化趋势;模拟的土壤温度和土壤湿度与观测值的偏差较小,模式效率和相关系数较高;模拟的净短波辐射及向上长波辐射较好;但是模拟的感热通量、潜热通量与观测值偏差较大,这可能与该地区的能量闭合度较低有关,还有待进一步研究。     

CLM4.5冠层截留方案的敏感性试验与改进

为探究陆气系统对于冠层截留过程敏的感性,研究基于NCAR CAM-CLM陆气耦合模式探讨了截留参数对于全球陆地蒸发、降水、径流及气温的可能影响,揭示了冠层截留与植被光合作用之间的潜在联系。通过GLEAMv3.0a陆面蒸散发数据评估了CLM4.5冠层截留方案,并指出该方案高估了低茎叶面积指数植被的冠层蒸发,而低估了高茎叶面积指数植被的冠层蒸发。在CLM4.5中引入冠层截留偏差校正方案则可在一定程度上提高了全球林区冠层蒸发和陆面蒸散发的模拟能力。     

阿尔卑斯山杉林冠层影响辐射传输的个例分析

利用瑞士Alptal观测站杉树林冠层上方、下方的辐射观测资料,分析了冠层对短波辐射的减弱及对长波辐射的增幅作用及其季节变化。结果表明,对比较密集的常绿针叶林,冠层对入射短波辐射的透过率随着太阳高度的降低而减小,春季以后趋于稳定;冠层对长波辐射的增幅作用随天气状况而变化,这种增幅作用在晴空条件下最显著,可达1.5倍。在冬季,因为太阳辐射较弱,冠层对长波辐射的增幅作用超过对短波辐射的减弱从而增加地面净辐射。在其它季节,太阳辐射比较强,冠层对短波辐射的减弱超过对长波辐射的增幅作用而减少地面净辐射。地面净辐射与冠层上方气温的变化趋势虽然在有些时段一致,但在伴随降雪过程的降温时段,地面净辐射与气温的变化趋势近乎反相,在积雪融化时段,地面净辐射的增加比气温升高更显著,尤其是在白天。     

安徽省淮南森林冠层辐射传输过程的特征

本文利用淮南森林观测站2018年7月1日至2019年6月30日冠层辐射观测,分析了淮南栎树森林下垫面冠层内外辐射变化特征。结果表明:（1）从春季到夏季,栎树冠层之上向下的太阳短波辐射增加,到冬季逐渐减少。从早春开始,由于叶片生长增多,冠层中间和冠层之下向下的太阳短波辐射下降,从秋季到冬季树叶凋落,其向下的太阳辐射增加,与冠层之上的变化趋势相反;对于向上的短波辐射,无论冠层之上、冠层中间还是冠层之下,随季节的变化都与向下的短波辐射相似,只是数值小很多。（2）冠层之上、冠层中间和冠层之下向下的长波辐射,随时间的变化从春季逐渐开始增大至夏季达到最大,随后逐渐减小并在冬季达到最小;就空间变化而言,冠层中间和冠层之下向下的长波辐射值比冠层之上的辐射值高,使得冠层对长波辐射的振幅增大,晴空条件最高可达1.3倍。（3）淮南森林区冠层之上（距地面25 m）年平均反照率为0.14,比中国北方地区（35°N）温带季风气候区（混交林为主）反照率的整体水平低0.01,表明淮南的森林茂密、灌丛更多些。（4）冠层上部分和整层的短波辐射透射率主要受叶片的影响。夏季,冠层的短波透射率平均为0.1。到了冬天,叶子凋落,透射率增加并趋于一个平稳的波动。冠层的短波辐射吸收率在夏季最高,秋季逐渐降低,随着叶子凋落在冬季迅速减小,趋于一常值。     

陆面过程对气候模式中的水分收支的影响

近些年来,在英国气象局大气环流模式(AGCM)中进行了陆面参数化的研究.例如,引入更逼真的水文学、多层土壤温度和植被冠层对降水的拦截和蒸发.全球固定的陆面参数已被地域性变化量所替代.本文主要讨论它们的推导,给出某些分布场.讨论了两组AGCM试验的结果,表明植被冠层过程和各种陆面参数对模式模拟的各个方面产生影响.这些包括水分循环增强和在赤热的沙漠地带的地表温度日变程明显增大.     

10层陆面过程模式及其Offline独立试验

利用西伯利亚地区的一个试验点资料和1998年中国淮河流域试验（HUBEX）的加密观测资料，对一个新发展的陆面过程模式进行了模拟检验。西伯利亚地区的单点试验表明，不同时间间隔的边界强迫对地表吸收的净短波辐射和释放的潜热影响较大。淮河流域的模拟结果表明，模式能够较好地模拟出我国夏季半湿润地区陆面特征量的变化趋势。由于模式模拟的地温偏低、净短波辐射偏小。所以模拟的感热和潜热值偏小。对该模式在淮河流域的植被、土壤等参数的合理选取可能会提高模式的模拟效果。     

Four-stream Radiative Transfer Parameterization Scheme in a Land Surface Process Model

Accurate estimates of albedos are required in climate modeling. Accurate and simple schemes for radiative transfer within canopy are required for these estimates, but severe limitations exist. This paper developed a four-stream solar radiative transfer model and coupled it with a land surface process model. The radiative model uses a four-stream approximation method as in the atmosphere to obtain analytic solutions of the basic equation of canopy radiative transfer. As an analytical model, the four-stream radiative transfer model can be easily applied efficiently to improve the parameterization of land surface radiation in climate models. Our four-stream solar radiative transfer model is based on a two-stream short wave radiative transfer model. It can simulate short wave solar radiative transfer within canopy according to the relevant theory in the atmosphere. Each parameter of the basic radiative transfer equation of canopy has special geometry and optical characters of leaves or canopy. The upward or downward radiative fluxes are related to the diffuse phase function, the G-function, leaf reflectivity and transmission, leaf area index, and the solar angle of the incident beam. The four-stream simulation is compared with that of the two-stream model. The four-stream model is proved successful through its consistent modeling of canopy albedo at any solar incident angle. In order to compare and find differences between the results predicted by the four- and two-stream models, a number of numerical experiments are performed through examining the effects of different leaf area indices, leaf angle distributions, optical properties of leaves, and ground surface conditions on the canopy albedo. Parallel experiments show that the canopy albedos predicted by the two models differ significantly when the leaf angle distribution is spherical and vertical. The results also show that the difference is particularly great for different incident solar beams. One additional experiment is carried out to evaluate the simulations of the BATS land surface model coupled with the two- and four-stream radiative transfer models. Station observations in 1998 are used for comparison. The results indicate that the simulation of BATS coupled with the four-stream model is the best because the surface absorbed solar radiation from the four-stream model is the closest to the observation.     

夏季我国干旱、半干旱区陆面过程能量平衡及其局地大气环流

利用NCEP资料分析得出,夏季我国干旱,半干旱区在整个欧亚大陆上是陆面感热通量最强的地方,与此对应的陆面潜热通量则最弱.陆面所接收的太阳短波辐射主要以感热和长波辐射的能量形式释放.该区降水量很少,降水量的年际变率也很弱;因此,该区的陆面热量通量都显出很弱的年际变率;然而,这些通量的年代际变率信号则比较显著.我国干旱、半干旱区大气环流的热力过程与其陆面过程特征密切相关.该区对流层大气的辐射冷却很强,达-3 K d-1.由于缺乏水汽和上升运动,大尺度凝结加热率、深对流加热率、浅对流加热率都非常弱.因此,600hPa以上的大气以绝热下沉加热来平衡辐射冷却;600hPa以下,陆面感热引起的垂直扩散加热率非常强,多达8 K d-1,它除了平衡辐射冷却以外还制造对流层低层的对流运动,以绝热上升冷却来平衡多余的垂直扩散加热.总之,我国干旱、半干旱区的陆面过程特征决定了该区大气运动的特殊垂直结构,即对流层低层对流上升运动及其上层的下沉运动.我国干旱、半干旱区陆面能量平衡及其局地大气环流的年代际变率,是全球气候系统年代际变率的必然结果.     

沙尘气溶胶对半干旱区微气象学特征影响的初步研究

沙尘气溶胶通过改变地表—大气间的短波及长波辐射从而对地气间热量传输产生影响,进而影响到地表能量收支平衡以及近地面层气象要素的分布。半干旱区是我国干旱化表现最为剧烈的地区,也是沙尘暴频发地区和主要源区之一。本文利用吉林通榆半干旱区国际协调强化观测计划基准站2006年4～6月近地层微气象、地表辐射通量和沙尘气溶胶浓度观测资料,对比分析了该地区在典型沙尘暴天气、扬沙天气和晴朗天气等不同天气状况下近地层各气象要素、地表能量平衡及辐射收支的变化特征。结果表明,沙尘气溶胶对半干旱地区地面微气象学特征及辐射收支具有明显的影响,且表现出不同于干旱区的若干特性:半干旱区沙尘天气下的平均风速比晴天高约2m.s-1,而相对湿度则降低了约35%。相对而言,气温和浅层地温的变化对沙尘的影响响应较弱。半干旱区在沙尘天气时地表净辐射小于晴天,感热/潜热通量分别约占净辐射的55%和30%,分别远大于/远小于晴天时的情形。该地区气溶胶质量浓度与日均感热、相对湿度、潜热等要素具有明显的相关,相关系数分别高达0.70、-0.75和-0.62。相比之下,干旱区沙尘天气时的感热通量要小于晴天时的值,而且气象要素的响应更加剧烈。     

Radiative effects of Pinatubo aerosols in the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere

Summary Using scattering coefficient profiles of the Pinatubo aerosols derived from the observation of skylight polarization and lidar backscattering ratio in Beijing, the radiative effect of Pinatubo aerosols in middle latitudes is assessed by a delta-four-stream radiative transfer model. It is shown that the Pinatubo aerosols significantly change the radiation field. Due to the presence of the volcanic aerosols, the downward short wave flux at the surface decreases with a maximum of 8 W/m² while the upward short wave flux at the top of the atmosphere increases with a maximum of 6.5 W/m². The volcanic aerosols are injected into the region bounded below by the tropopause and up by the 25 km level. The upward and downward radiative fluxes are changed in opposite directions at those two boundaries. Downward short wave fluxes below the tropopause are 7–9 W/m² less than background values and downward long wave fluxes below the tropopause are 2 W/m² more than background values. Upward short wave fluxes above 25 km level is 5–7 W/m² more and upward fluxes above there are about 3 W/m² less.The effects of the Pinatubo aerosols on heating rates are also significant. The maximum increase in the short wave heating rate can be as large as 0.2 K/day at 22 km. The increase in the long wave heating rate is less with a maximum amplitude of about 0.15 K/day. The maximum increase of the total heating rate is about 0.35 K/day, which is comparable with the heating rate caused by the ozone 9.6 µm band in this region.Results of this study are compared with studies of Lacis et al. (1992) and Russell et al. (1993) as well as ERBE measurements. The results generally agree well. Causes for the differences are analyzed.Based on the numerical study, it is also found that the LOWTRAN fresh volcanic model is not representative for the Pinatubo aerosols.With 9 Figures     

RCP4.5: a pathway for stabilization of radiative forcing by 2100

Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 is a scenario that stabilizes radiative forcing at 4.5?W?m^?2 in the year 2100 without ever exceeding that value. Simulated with the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM), RCP4.5 includes long-term, global emissions of greenhouse gases, short-lived species, and land-use-land-cover in a global economic framework. RCP4.5 was updated from earlier GCAM scenarios to incorporate historical emissions and land cover information common to the RCP process and follows a cost-minimizing pathway to reach the target radiative forcing. The imperative to limit emissions in order to reach this target drives changes in the energy system, including shifts to electricity, to lower emissions energy technologies and to the deployment of carbon capture and geologic storage technology. In addition, the RCP4.5 emissions price also applies to land use emissions; as a result, forest lands expand from their present day extent. The simulated future emissions and land use were downscaled from the regional simulation to a grid to facilitate transfer to climate models. While there are many alternative pathways to achieve a radiative forcing level of 4.5?W?m^?2, the application of the RCP4.5 provides a common platform for climate models to explore the climate system response to stabilizing the anthropogenic components of radiative forcing.     

Vertical fluxes in katabatic flows

Katabatic flow is a dynamical process occurring on relatively calm, clear nights above sloping terrain. Its existence is dependent on long-wave radiative transfer, particularly radiative flux divergence within the air itself, for both its generation and (it is concluded here), along with advective warming, for much of its retardation.Utilising sounding data closely spaced in time, a discussion is presented of the importance of surface shear, interfacial shear, advective warming and radiative divergence in a strong katabatic flow. It is concluded that radiative divergence is important in generating static and dynamic instabilities in the flow. The role of radiative cooling in mixing of momentum has largely been ignored so far, and might explain why higher-order models tend to overestimate katabatic speeds on smooth slopes.     

Simulation of the radiative effect of black carbon aerosols and the regional climate responses over China

As part of the development work of the Chinese new regional climate model (RIEMS), the radiative process of black carbon (BC) aerosols has been introduced into the original radiative procedures of RIEMS,and the transport model of BC aerosols has also been established and combined with the RIEMS model.Using the new model system, the distribution of black carbon aerosols and their radiative effect over the China region are investigated. The influences of BC aerosole on the atmospheric radiative transfer and on the air temperature, land surface temperature, and total rainfall are analyzed. It is found that BC aerosols induce a positive radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), which is dominated by shortwave radiative forcing. The maximum radiative forcing occurs in North China in July and in South China in April. At the same time, negative radiative forcing is observed on the surface. Based on the radiative forcing comparison between clear sky and cloudy sky, it is found that cloud can enforce the TOA positive radiative forcing and decrease the negative surface radiative forcing. The responses of the climate system in July to the radiative forcing due to BC aerosols are the decrease in the air temperature in the middle and lower reaches of the Changjiang River and Huaihe area and most areas of South China, and the weak increase or decrease in air temperature over North China. The total rainfall in the middle and lower reaches of the Changjiang River area is increased, but it decreased in North China in July.     

BCC_AGCM2.1对中国东部地区云辐射特征模拟的偏差分析

通过与观测及再分析资料的对比,评估了中国国家气候中心大气环流模式BCC_AGCM 2.1对中国东部地区云辐射特征的模拟性能,并着重分析了模拟偏差的原因.在云辐射特征的基本气候态模拟方面,模式能大致再现中国东部中纬度层状云大值带,以及层状云冷季多、暖季少的季节特征,模拟的短波云辐射强迫也具有与观测相对应的季节变化特征.在云辐射强迫和地面温度相互影响过程的模拟方面,模式也能模拟出与观测相近的相互作用过程,即地面温度降低伴随着层状云云量增多以及负的净云辐射强迫加强,升温时层状云云量减少和净云辐射强迫减弱.但模式模拟的大陆层状云云量系统性偏少(尤其在冷季),使得模式在该处的短波云辐射强迫明显偏弱.初步分析表明,造成层状云模拟差异的主要原因是在中国西南地区对流层低层模式模拟的偏南气流明显偏弱以及陆-气潜热通量偏小.偏南气流偏弱导致低层散度和垂直运动条件不利于中层云的形成.同时偏南气流偏弱也不利于向西南地区的水汽输送,再加上模式模拟地表向上潜热通量偏小,这二者都使得模式模拟中国西南区域对流层低层的水汽含量严重偏少,相对湿度偏低,同样不利于层状云生成和发展.水汽偏少进一步导致在冷异常情况下青藏高原下游云辐射-地表温度反馈模拟偏弱,即呈现冷异常时,水汽条件偏弱限制了云量增加,弱化了进一步降低温度的反馈过程.     

不同辐射传输方案对中尺度降水影响的对比分析

在MM5非静力稳定中尺度气象模式中引进了建立在δ-4流近似和相关-k分布基础上的对云水、雨水、冰晶和霰的辐射特性进行详细描述的辐射传输方案。新建立的辐射传输方案和MM5中原有的辐射传输方案在华南暴雨中的模拟结果相互比较，并与天气实况的对比表明:辐射在中尺度暴雨中起着重要的作用；辐射传输方案对云辐射特性描述的准确程度对于地面降水影响是明显的；不同的辐射传输方案对地面降水的影响存在较大的差异，并且这些差异在白天比在夜间明显；辐射传输过程对地面降水影响的差异主要表现在降水中心上，而对降水的地理分布改变很小；相对而言，不同的辐射传输方案之间对短波描述的差异对地面降水的影响明显，而对长波描述差异的影响不大；新辐射传输方案能够在一定程度上改进MM5对中尺度降水的模拟能力。