Simulation of monsoon depressions using MM5: sensitivity to cumulus parameterization schemes

Summary The sensitivity of the simulation of the monsoon depressions to the cumulus parameterization schemes used in a numerical model is studied using the Pennsylvania State University – National Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU-NCAR) model MM5 version 3.6.2. Three different cases of monsoon depressions were studied with a two way interacting domains of 45 km and 15 km resolutions. Two different cumulus parameterization schemes namely Grell (GR) and Kain-Fritsch (KF) were used for the sensitivity study. The model was integrated for 48 hours with the initial and boundary conditions of European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting Reanalysis (ERA-40) data. The results show that both the schemes are able to simulate the large scale features of the monsoon depressions realistically. However, both the schemes failed to simulate the exact location of the depression after 24- and 48-hour simulation. The rainfall simulations of both the schemes were very different. The model with the GR scheme tends to over predict the rainfall. The KF scheme could simulate the distribution of the rainfall comparable to the observations. The KF scheme could simulate the maximum observed rainfall but due to locational errors of the simulated depression, the location of the maximum rainfall was not exact. It is also seen that the resolution of the model has a positive impact on the rainfall simulation. The GR and KF schemes were able to realistically simulate the apparent heat sources, but the apparent moisture profile simulated with KF scheme was more comparable to the verifying analysis. The root mean square errors of mean sea-level pressure, temperature, zonal wind and meridional wind were smaller for KF simulation compared to the GR simulation. Permanent affiliation: Center for Development of Advanced Computing, Pune University Campus, Ganeshkhind, Pune-411 007, India.     

MM5模式中不同对流参数化方案的比较试验

应用MM5中尺度模式, 在60、20和10 km模式分辨率下, 分别选用4种不同对流参数化方案 (KUO方案、GRELL方案、KAIN-FRITSCH方案和BETTS-MILLER方案, 以下简称KU、GR、KF和BM方案) 对1996年8月3~4日石家庄暴雨过程进行数值模拟试验.模拟结果的对比分析及其与观测的比较表明:主要雨带位置对参数化方案并不是十分敏感, 但随分辨率提高, 雨带分布特征的模拟更接近实况; 当分辨率提高到10 km时, 虚假的降水中心也明显增加; 模拟的暴雨中心强度随分辨率的提高而增强并随参数化方案的不同有所变化, 但均比实况偏弱.分析还发现, MM5模式的GR、KF及BM方案的次网格降水对总降水的贡献率随分辨率的提高而减小, 而KU方案的情况则呈现出不合理的缓慢增加态势.虽然4种方案下模拟的水平环流特征有较好的一致性, 但模拟的云物理特征和垂直运动特征还是存在一定差别的, 这种差别对定点、定量降水和天空状况、地面气温、湿度等要素的准确预报都会产生影响.因此, 在预报和模拟中应考虑预报和研究对象的特点来选择对流参数化方案.     

Simulation of heavy precipitation episode over eastern Peninsular Malaysia using MM5: sensitivity to cumulus parameterization schemes

A comparative study has been conducted to investigate the skill of four convection parameterization schemes, namely the Anthes–Kuo (AK), the Betts–Miller (BM), the Kain–Fritsch (KF), and the Grell (GR) schemes in the numerical simulation of an extreme precipitation episode over eastern Peninsular Malaysia using the Pennsylvania State University—National Center for Atmospheric Research Center (PSU-NCAR) Fifth Generation Mesoscale Model (MM5). The event is a commonly occurring westward propagating tropical depression weather system during a boreal winter resulting from an interaction between a cold surge and the quasi-stationary Borneo vortex. The model setup and other physical parameterizations are identical in all experiments and hence any difference in the simulation performance could be associated with the cumulus parameterization scheme used. From the predicted rainfall and structure of the storm, it is clear that the BM scheme has an edge over the other schemes. The rainfall intensity and spatial distribution were reasonably well simulated compared to observations. The BM scheme was also better in resolving the horizontal and vertical structures of the storm. Most of the rainfall simulated by the BM simulation was of the convective type. The failure of other schemes (AK, GR and KF) in simulating the event may be attributed to the trigger function, closure assumption, and precipitation scheme. On the other hand, the appropriateness of the BM scheme for this episode may not be generalized for other episodes or convective environments.     

The Effects of Model Resolution on the Simulation of Regional Climate Extreme Events

The fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University/NCAR Mesoscale Model Version 3 (MM5V3) was used to simulate extreme heavy rainfall events over the Yangtze River Basin in June 1999. The effects of model's horizontal and vertical resolution on the extreme climate events were investigated in detail. In principle, the model was able to characterize the spatial distribution of monthly heavy precipitation. The results indicated that the increase in horizontal resolution could reduce the bias of the modeled heavy rain and reasonably simulate the change of daily precipitation during the study period. A finer vertical resolution led to obviously improve rainfall simulations with smaller biases, and hence, better resolve heavy rainfall events. The increase in both horizontal and vertical resolution could produce better predictions of heavy rainfall events. Not only the rainfall simulation altered in the cases of different horizontal and vertical grid spacing, but also other meteorological fields demonstrated diverse variations in terms of resolution change in the model. An evident improvement in the simulated sea level pressure resulted from the increase of horizontal resolution, but the simulation was insensitive to vertical grid spacing. The increase in vertical resolution could enhance the simulation of surface temperature as well as atmospheric circulation at low levels, while the simulation of circulation at middle and upper levels were found to be much less dependent on changing resolution. In addition, cumulus parameterization schemes showed high sensitivity to horizontal resolution. Different convective schemes exhibited large discrepancies in rainfall simulations with regards to changing resolution. The percentage of convective precipitation in the Grell scheme increased with increasing horizontal resolution. In contrast, the Kain-Fritsch scheme caused a reduced ratio of convective precipitation to total rainfall accumulations corresponding to increasing horizontal resolution.     

WRF模式中微物理和积云参数化方案的对比试验

为了研究微物理参数化方案对珠江三角洲(简称珠三角)降水模拟的影响,利用WRF中尺度数值预报模式,在3 km模式分辨率下,在微物理方案为WSM6方案条件下,选用KF、BMJ、GD以及G3等四种积云参数化方案对2010年5月14日广东珠三角地区的一次暴雨过程进行了模拟试验。结果显示,KF方案对于降水带和降水量的模拟与实况较为一致。在积云参数化方案为KF条件下,分别选用Kessler、Lin et al、WSM 3、WSM5、Ferrier(New eta)和WSM6等6种微物理方案再次对这次暴雨过程进行模拟试验,模拟结果的对比分析表明:选用Lin et al微物理方案时,模式较好地模拟出了强降水雨带的位置和降水强度;而其他5种参数方案的模拟效果均不好,降水量明显偏小,雨带位置偏差较大;同时对低空急流、K指数和上升速度等物理量分析可知,Lin et al方案能较好地模拟出降水实况。     

Performance assessment of three convective parameterization schemes in WRF for downscaling summer rainfall over South Africa

Austral summer rainfall over the period 1991/1992 to 2010/2011 was dynamically downscaled by the weather research and forecasting (WRF) model at 9 km resolution for South Africa. Lateral boundary conditions for WRF were provided from the European Centre for medium-range weather (ECMWF) reanalysis (ERA) interim data. The model biases for the rainfall were evaluated over the South Africa as a whole and its nine provinces separately by employing three different convective parameterization schemes, namely the (1) Kain–Fritsch (KF), (2) Betts–Miller–Janjic (BMJ) and (3) Grell–Devenyi ensemble (GDE) schemes. All three schemes have generated positive rainfall biases over South Africa, with the KF scheme producing the largest biases and mean absolute errors. Only the BMJ scheme could reproduce the intensity of rainfall anomalies, and also exhibited the highest correlation with observed interannual summer rainfall variability. In the KF scheme, a significantly high amount of moisture was transported from the tropics into South Africa. The vertical thermodynamic profiles show that the KF scheme has caused low level moisture convergence, due to the highly unstable atmosphere, and hence contributed to the widespread positive biases of rainfall. The negative bias in moisture, along with a stable atmosphere and negative biases of vertical velocity simulated by the GDE scheme resulted in negative rainfall biases, especially over the Limpopo Province. In terms of rain rate, the KF scheme generated the lowest number of low rain rates and the maximum number of moderate to high rain rates associated with more convective unstable environment. KF and GDE schemes overestimated the convective rain and underestimated the stratiform rain. However, the simulated convective and stratiform rain with BMJ scheme is in more agreement with the observations. This study also documents the performance of regional model in downscaling the large scale climate mode such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and subtropical dipole modes. The correlations between the simulated area averaged rainfalls over South Africa and Nino3.4 index were ?0.66, ?0.69 and ?0.49 with KF, BMJ and GDE scheme respectively as compared to the observed correlation of ?0.57. The model could reproduce the observed ENSO-South Africa rainfall relationship and could successfully simulate three wet (dry) years that are associated with La Niña (El Niño) and the BMJ scheme is closest to the observed variability. Also, the model showed good skill in simulating the excess rainfall over South Africa that is associated with positive subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole for the DJF season 2005/2006.     

分辨率对区域气候极端事件模拟的影响

利用NCAR MM5V3对1999年6月长江流域的极端异常降水事件进行了模拟,主要研究不同水平和垂直分辨率对极端区域气候事件模拟的影响。数值模拟试验表明:模式能够模拟出极端强降水的主要分布特征;水平分辨率的提高降低了模式模拟的强降水偏差,对逐日降水变化的模拟更加合理,而垂直分辨率的提高基本上也都减小了模拟的强降水过程的偏差,改善对强降水的模拟能力;模式水平、垂直分辨率的提高在一定程度上增强了对强降水过程的模拟能力。水平分辨率的提高能够改善模式对海平面气压的模拟,而垂直分辨率的提高可以改善模式模拟的地面气温和低层环流。分辨率对中层大气环流的影响不是很敏感。不同积云对流参数化方案模拟的对流降水比率随水平分辨率的变化是不同的,Grell方案对流降水比例随分辨率的提高而增加,而Kain-Fritsch方案的结果相反。     

GRAPES中尺度模式中Kain-Fritcsh方案的改进及应用试验

本文对GRAPES_Meso中Kain-Fritcsh eta积云参数化方案进行了三种改进:(1)将原触发机制中的温度扰动分解成由水汽决定的垂直向和水平向温度扰动(KF1方案),(2)在原温度扰动中直接增加一项由相对湿度计算的水汽平流项(KF2方案),(3)在KF1方案中增加用相对湿度计算的水汽平流项(KF3方案)。利用GFS预报场资料对上述改进方案进行模拟试验和批量回报试验,结果表明:“5·23”暴雨个例中,(1)改进方案均可以减少原方案模拟的部分虚假降水,KF1方案模拟降水范围较好,KF2方案模拟强降水中心较好,KF3方案同时具备二者优点。(2)三种改进方案对于强降水站点均存在模拟降水偏弱,KF1方案降水趋势与实况接近,但存在对流激发较快,后期降水略为不足,KF2方案则相反,KF3方案表现介于二者之间;KF2、KF3方案均会在对流激发最强和最弱时刻使其向有利方向调整。台风个例中,KF1方案模拟中心气压较好,KF2方案模拟台风路径较好,KF3方案则在两者上均有较好表现。TS评分检验表明KF1方案在各个降水量级上的评分都较低,KF2、KF3方案评分相对较高;误差检验(高度、风)时,KF1方案在中层误差较大,高、低层误差最小,其他两种方案表现则相反。      

1981~2017年雅砻江流域面雨量变化特征分析

利用1981～2017年雅砻江流域18个气象站的逐日降水资料,采用算术平均、滑动平均、线性回归等方法,分析了流域面雨量、雨季的时空分布特征。结果表明:雅砻江流域面雨量随月份起伏明显,年内变化呈单峰型。流域春季面雨量呈增加趋势,夏季面雨量中上游呈稳定趋势,下游呈减少趋势,秋季中游和下游呈减少趋势,冬季变化不明显。流域年平均面雨量由北向南逐渐增多,上游和中游呈上升趋势,下游呈下降趋势。雅砻江流域雨季开始期呈提前趋势,雨季结束期上游和下游有推迟趋势,中游变化趋势不明显。流域强降水主要出现在6～9月,面雨量最大值出现在7月,最小值在1月。流域上游的强降水与中游、下游的基本没有关联度;下游强降水和中游关联度为23.3%。      

不同积云对流参数化方案对“7·21”北京特大暴雨模拟的影响

针对2012年7月21—22日北京特大暴雨过程,比较WRF V3.5.1版本中KF、BMJ、GD、SAS四种积云对流参数化方案对降水的模拟效果,研究对流激发在时空分布上的特征以及预报降水量的影响因子。结果表明,KF方案整体效果较好,BMJ方案夸大了强降水区的范围和强度,GD和SAS方案模拟效果较差。各方案在初始对流激发的状态和时间上存在差异,使得演变过程显著不同。总体上,KF方案很好地模拟了对流的触发,在发生强降水时段,上升运动强,水汽条件充足。同时,KF和BMJ方案模拟的深对流区域降水效率高,SAS方案基本均为层云区域,无法模拟出强降水中心。     

WRF模式中不同积云对流参数化方案对比试验

本文主要对基于WRF模式的快速同化系统（RUC）中使用的积云对流参数化方案进行简单介绍,并对不同积云对流参数化方案进行了典型个例降水预报的对比试验和检验。结果表明,总体预报效果以KF和GD方案较好,具体表现在雨区分布及大暴雨中心强度,对流降水对总降水贡献,在中低层流场高低值系统分布,以及冷空气活动引起的变温正负中心强度及位置,KF和GD方案模拟结果可以较好地反映观测实况,TS评分结果也表明KF和GD方案在小级别降水预报中占有优势。     

不同嵌套方式下的积云对流方案对上海崇明极端暴雨高分辨率模拟的影响研究

使用1980～2017年共38年崇明站逐日降水资料对崇明站年降水量及暴雨日数的特征进行分析,并使用中尺度数值预报模式WRF3.9.1.1（Weather Research and Forecasting model）针对崇明年降水量及暴雨日数异常年份2015年的最强降水过程进行数值模拟,结合站点降水观测资料使用统计方法来系统验证模拟结果。通过敏感性试验着重研究尺度自适应的GF（Grell–Freitas）与传统的KF（Kain–Fritsch）、BMJ（Betts–Miller–Janji?）积云对流参数化方案在不同比率的网格嵌套方式下对于本次过程极端降水总量及逐时变化预报的影响。研究结果表明:使用大比率（9:1或15:1）的双层嵌套可以更真实地模拟强降水区累积降水量分布和逐时变化情况,而使用传统的小比率（3:1或5:1）三层嵌套网格会导致大暴雨和特大暴雨的TS（Threat Score）评分降低,小时降水峰值模拟偏弱等问题;模式外圈使用传统的KF、BMJ积云对流方案比尺度自适应的GF方案对于内圈高分辨率的极端降水总量、逐时变化模拟更有优势,特别是使用KF方案,可以更真实地模拟出极端降水中心的日变化强度;而使用GF方案对于入海口降水模拟偏弱,大暴雨和特大暴雨的TS评分普遍偏低,小时降水峰值也被严重低估。     

不同参数化方案对安徽一次暴雨过程模拟的影响分析

使用WRF v3.4模式对2012年7月12—14日安徽的一次暴雨进行模拟。保持其他参数如辐射、陆面过程等不变, 将不同微物理过程(Eta、Kessler、Lin方案)与积云参数方案(KF、BMJ、GD方案)进行组合成9个试验。将试验模拟结果与实况进行对比分析, 发现:微物理方案的选取对于降水的雨强、位置、雨区范围的模拟都有一定的影响。积云参数化方案对于降水的范围, 雨带的位置模拟也都有影响, 但对于雨强的影响不大。将各试验模拟的逐小时降水与实况进行比较, 发现试验Eta-GD和Lin-GD模拟降水日变化与实况更接近。通过TS评分、ETS评分和系统偏差分析, 表明试验Eta-GD在此次暴雨过程的降水模拟中表现最好。     

江淮梅雨季节强降雨过程特征分析

为了便于识别梅雨季节江淮地区的强降雨过程,促进汛期强降雨过程的预报方法研究,使用中国国家级地面气象站逐日观测资料,提出了一种划分江淮梅雨季节强降雨过程的客观方法,并对江淮梅雨季节内强降雨过程的特征进行了分析。结果表明:该方法能有效划分出江淮梅雨季节的强降雨过程,划分结果与预报业务中的划分结果具有较高的一致性,便于在业务中应用。在江淮梅雨季节内,梅雨期的强降雨过程存在明显的年际变化且与梅雨强、弱密切相关,强梅雨年具有较多的强降雨过程以及过程累积强降雨日,强梅雨年的强降雨过程具有持续性、反复性和频发性的特征。弱梅雨年则相反。近56年来梅雨期强降雨过程累积雨量在整个江淮地区有线性增加的趋势,且江苏南部至浙江北部地区雨量增大的趋势最为显著。梅雨期强降雨过程累积雨量及雨日的空间分布是一致的,最大区域中心均位于安徽西南部、江西东北部及湖北东部等地。按照此客观划分方法确定的梅雨期的强降雨过程累积雨量与梅雨期总雨量具有较为相似的时空变化特征。      

积云对流参数化对一交梅雨锋暴雨过程影响的模拟检验

应用１９８８年版日本谱模式ＪＳＭ,对比分析了Ａｒａｋａｗａ－Ｓｃｋａｗａ－Ｓｃｈｕｂｅｒｔ、Ｋａｉｎ－Ｆｒｉｔｓｃｈ、ＫｕｏＡｎｔｈｅｓ和Ｇａｄｄ－Ｋｅｅｒｓ等几种积云对流参数化方案在梅雨锋暴雨对流系统模拟中的表现。     

Role of cumulus parameterization schemes in simulating heavy rainfall episodes off the coast of Maharashtra state during 28 June–4 July 2007

Indian summer monsoon gives on an average 250 cm of rainfall due to mesoscale/synoptic scale systems over west coast of India; now-a-days, MM5 model plays a very crucial role in simulating such heavy rainfall episodes like Mumbai (India) on 26 July 2005, which caused devastation through flash floods. The main aim of this study is to simulate such heavy rainfall episodes using three different cumulus parameterization schemes (CPS) namely Kain–Fritsch-1, Anthes–Kuo and Grell and to compare their relative merits in identifying the characteristics of mesoscale systems over 14 stations in coastal Maharashtra state during 28 June–4 July 2007. MM5 control experiment results are analysed for the fields of mean sea level pressure, wind, geopotential height at 850 hPa and rainfall with the above schemes. It is interesting to note that Kain–Fritsch-1 scheme simulates heavy rainfall amount of 48 cm for an observed rainfall of 51 cm in 24 h. The Grell scheme underestimates heavy rainfall episodes, while the Anthes–Kuo scheme is found to over predict rainfall on both temporal and spatial scales. The reason for better performance of KF-1 scheme may be due to inclusion of updrafts and downdrafts. Later the simulated rainfall quantities at 14 stations over study region are validated with both 3B42RT and observed rain gauge data of India Meteorological Department (IMD) and the results are promising. Finally, for the heavy rainfall prediction cases, the best threat score is at 0.25 mm threshold for three CPSs. Thus, this study is a breakthrough in pointing out that the KF-1 experiment has the best skill in predicting heavy rainfall episodes.     

MM5模式中湿方案的不确定性对“03·7”南京暴雨数值模拟不确定性的影响

利用有限区域非静力MM5模式, 分析了显式降水方案对于2003年7月4—5日南京暴雨数值模拟的不确定性影响。采用混合方案模拟此次暴雨时, 这种不确定性决定于显式和隐式方案的相互协调性及敏感性; 隐式方案基本决定了雨带的整体的空间分布, 而显式方案对于降水型及降水量起到一定的调节作用, 调节的程度与选择的参数化方案有关; 采用隐式方案Grell和KF2模拟此次暴雨时, 应考虑不同的显式方案对于降水模拟的不确定性的影响。     

Uncertainties in simulating regional climate of Southern Africa: sensitivity to physical parameterizations using WRF

This study aims at quantifying seasonal biases of regional climate model outputs during southern African summer, against a dense in situ measurement network (daily rain-gauge and surface air temperature records, and 12?h UTC radiosondes), and uncertainties associated with some physical parameterizations. Using the non-hydrostatic Advanced Research Weather Forecast (WRF) laterally forced by ERA40 reanalysis, twenty-seven experiments configured with three schemes of cumulus (CU), planetary boundary layer (PBL) and microphysics (MP), are performed at 35?km horizontal resolution during the core of a summer rainy season (December 1993 to February 1994 season) representative of the South African rainfall climatology. WRF simulates accurately seasonal large-scale rainfall patterns, as well as seasonal gradients of South African rainfall and 2-m temperature, and seasonal vertical profiles of the air temperature and humidity. However seasonal biases fluctuate strongly from an experiment to another, denoting considerable uncertainties generated by the physical package. Rainfall amounts are the most sensitive parameter to the tested schemes. Their geography, intensity, and intraseasonal characteristics are predominantly sensitive to CU schemes, and much less to PBL and MP schemes. Some CU-PBL combinations produce additive effects, which can dramatically either reduce or increase biases. Satisfactory configurations are found for South African climate, which would not have been possible without testing numerous physical parameterizations.     

基于不同微物理过程的广西沿海南风型暖区暴雨的数值模拟研究

基于WRFV3.6.1,利用其8个云微物理参数化方案对2010—2016年华南汛期（4—9月）的6个南风型暖区暴雨个例进行数值模拟与多方案集成试验,并采用基于对象的诊断评估方法（MODE）对模拟结果进行评估。结果发现对于大多数个例,WRF模式都能较好地模拟出暖区暴雨的降水带,对暖区降水带模拟最好的参数化方案是WSM6方案,其次是Lin方案;模拟效果较差的参数化方案为CAM5.1与NSSL 2-mon方案。选取模拟结果较好的个例进行诊断分析,发现不同参数化方案得到的动力学特征以及云微物理特征相关变量存在较大差异,导致模拟降水的差异。在单方案模拟的基础上,开展多方案集成试验,发现多方案集成方法能够有效降低模式模拟的不确定性,产生更稳定的模拟结果。     

中尺度模式中不同对流参数化方案的比较试验

MM5模式中有多种积云参数化方案可供选择,粗细网格采用不同的积云参数化方案对降水预报有一定的影响。采用常用的四种积云参数化方案,粗细网格进行不同配置,对辽东半岛大暴雨过程进行试验发现：细网格信息可以通过嵌套边界向外层传递,影响外层预报结果。细网格选取GR方案比选取AK、BM、KF方案模拟效果好很多;细网格参数化方案不变,粗网格取不同的参数化方案,对细网格的模拟结果差别不大。但选取一个好的参数化方案对细网格的模拟结果会稍有改进。