Fault zone characteristics,fracture systems and permeability implications of Middle Triassic Muschelkalk in Southwest Germany

Fault zone structure and lithology affect permeability of Triassic Muschelkalk limestone-marl-alternations in Southwest Germany, a region characterized by a complex tectonic history. Field studies of eight fault zones provide insights into fracture system parameters (orientation, density, aperture, connectivity, vertical extension) within fault zone units (fault core, damage zone). Results show decreasing fracture lengths with distances to the fault cores in well-developed damage zones. Fracture connectivity at fracture tips is enhanced in proximity to the slip surfaces, particularly caused by shorter fractures. Different mechanical properties of limestone and marl layers obviously affect fracture propagation and thus fracture system connectivity and permeability. Fracture apertures are largest parallel and subparallel to fault zones and prominent regional structures (e.g., Upper Rhine Graben) leading to enhanced fracture-induced permeabilities. Mineralized fractures and mineralizations in fault cores indicate past fluid flow. Permeability is increased by the development of hydraulically active pathways across several beds (non-stratabound fractures) to a higher degree than by the formation of fractures interconnected at fracture tips. We conclude that there is an increase of interconnected fractures and fracture densities in proximity to the fault cores. This is particularly clear in more homogenous rocks. The results help to better understand permeability in Muschelkalk rocks.     

碳酸盐岩断层破碎带构造成岩作用——以塔中Ⅰ号断裂带为例

多旋回叠合盆地断层具有异常复杂的构造变形与成岩演变,跨学科结合的构造成岩作用研究为断层破碎带演变机制与流体-岩石作用分析提供了新思路。结合塔中Ⅰ号断裂带构造解析和地化资料分析,探讨古老碳酸盐岩断层破碎带构造成岩作用的特殊性。结果表明,塔中Ⅰ号断裂带上奥陶统台缘带碳酸盐岩断层破碎带发育多类、多期构造成岩作用,明显不同于围岩。断层破碎带宽度高达2~4km,裂缝类型多样、纵横向变化大、开启程度较高。沿断裂带压实作用较弱且有差异,发现有碳酸盐岩压实变形带发育,并有后期裂缝与溶蚀作用形成的局部高渗透带。断层破碎带观测到多期压溶低角度缝合线与高角度构造缝合线,部分具有渗透性。多达4~5期不同类型胶结作用沿裂缝带发育,大气淡水胶结较多,胶结程度相对较弱。准同生期大气淡水溶蚀与局部风化壳岩溶主要沿断层破碎带发育,而且埋藏溶蚀作用较强,发育大型缝洞体与溶蚀孔洞。构造成岩作用揭示塔中Ⅰ号断裂带东段上奥陶统碳酸盐岩断层破碎带经历断裂萌芽期-形成期-定型期-复活扩张期-局部开启期等5期演变,不同演化期构造成岩作用有明显差异。构造成岩作用的多期差异活动是造成古老碳酸盐岩断层破碎带复杂性的重要因素。     

碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带结构、分布与发育机制

断裂带通常包括狭窄的断层核与宽阔的破碎带,并对岩石物理及其水力学、流体与渗透性具有重要作用。根据断裂破碎带结构的差异,将碳酸盐岩断层核划分为颗粒支撑、基质支撑与胶结支撑等3种类型,将碳酸盐岩破碎带划分碎裂带与裂缝带。不同类型碳酸盐岩断层核与破碎带形成多种类型组合,并造成断裂破碎带多种复杂的渗流结构。通过井—震资料的结合,可以判识沉积盆地内部较宽的碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带,其宽度—位移关系可以指示断裂破碎带的不同生长方式与机制。复杂内部结构、多期构造成岩作用与non-Andersonian破裂机制可能导致碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带的异常生长,也是碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带机理研究的重要方向。     

碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带结构、分布与发育机制

断裂带通常包括狭窄的断层核与宽阔的破碎带,并对岩石物理及其水力学、流体与渗透性具有重要作用。根据断裂破碎带结构的差异,将碳酸盐岩断层核划分为颗粒支撑、基质支撑与胶结支撑等3种类型,将碳酸盐岩破碎带划分碎裂带与裂缝带。不同类型碳酸盐岩断层核与破碎带形成多种类型组合,并造成断裂破碎带多种复杂的渗流结构。通过井一震资料的结合,可以判识沉积盆地内部较宽的碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带,其宽度一位移关系可以指示断裂破碎带的不同生长方式与机制。复杂内部结构、多期构造成岩作用与non-Andersonian破裂机制可能导致碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带的异常生长,也是碳酸盐岩断裂破碎带机理研究的重要方向。     

塔里木盆地碳酸盐岩油气聚集带

海相碳酸盐岩储层多类型及非均质性强的特点,决定了其油气聚集带与以往陆相盆地碎屑岩油气聚集带的控制因素有显著差异,碳酸盐岩的油气聚集并不是简单地受二级构造带的控制。通过分析塔里木盆地已发现碳酸盐岩油气藏,其储层发育受大气淡水风化淋滤作用、沉积作用及各种成岩作用、深部流体改造作用等因素的控制。据储层成因类型及其横向分布特征,将塔里木盆地碳酸盐岩油气聚集带划分为:不整合与古风化壳型、生物建造礁-滩型、白云岩内幕型及深部流体改造型。不同类型的碳酸盐岩油气聚集带主要分布于塔北隆起、塔中隆起及巴楚断隆等古隆起的不同部位。由于不同碳酸盐岩油气聚集带上储集层成因机制不同,导致其储集空间、储集性能、油气藏类型及分布等均有所不同。     

Modelling of fractured carbonate reservoirs: outline of a novel technique via a case study from the Molasse Basin, southern Bavaria, Germany

Fluid flow in low-permeable carbonate rocks depends on the density of fractures, their interconnectivity and on the formation of fault damage zones. The present-day stress field influences the aperture hence the transmissivity of fractures whereas paleostress fields are responsible for the formation of faults and fractures. In low-permeable reservoir rocks, fault zones belong to the major targets. Before drilling, an estimate for reservoir productivity of wells drilled into the damage zone of faults is therefore required. Due to limitations in available data, a characterization of such reservoirs usually relies on the use of numerical techniques. The requirements of these mathematical models encompass a full integration of the actual fault geometry, comprising the dimension of the fault damage zone and of the fault core, and the individual population with properties of fault zones in the hanging and foot wall and the host rock. The paper presents both the technical approach to develop such a model and the property definition of heterogeneous fault zones and host rock with respect to the current stress field. The case study describes a deep geothermal reservoir in the western central Molasse Basin in southern Bavaria, Germany. Results from numerical simulations indicate that the well productivity can be enhanced along compressional fault zones if the interconnectivity of fractures is lateral caused by crossing synthetic and antithetic fractures. The model allows a deeper understanding of production tests and reservoir properties of faulted rocks.     

Architectural characteristics and petrophysical properties evolution of a strike-slip fault zone in a fractured porous carbonate reservoir

This paper describes the structural, petrophysical and hydromechanical properties relationships between a small fault zone and the porous layered carbonate series which host it. In a gallery located at 250-m depth, the deformation of a 22-m thick section of layered carbonates-, affected by a strike slip-fault have been characterized by means of structural (Q-value), acoustic velocities (V_p), porosity and uniaxial compressive strength (σ_c) measurements conducted in situ at the meter scale, and on laboratory samples at the infra-centimeter scale. A clear influence of the layers initial properties on fault architecture and properties evolution is underlined. In the porous layers with a low σ_c, there is an important accommodation of the deformation by micro-mechanisms resulting in a progressive decrease in the porosity toward the fault core. In the low-porosity layers with a high σ_c, deformations are accommodated toward the fault core by: an increase in the fracture porosity, in the micro-cracks porosity, and by displacements along pre-existing fractures resulting from a joint roughness decrease. The fault zone appears as relatively stiff and low permeable zones intercalated with low stiffness and high fracture permeability zones that extend one to tens of meters from the fault following the initial properties contrasts and geometry of the sedimentary layers.     

碳酸盐岩断裂相分类特征——以新疆塔里木盆地柯坪露头为例

断裂相的概念为断裂带的内部结构研究提供了新的思路与建模方法,通过塔里木盆地柯坪露头断裂带的分析,碳酸盐岩断裂相特征有别于碎屑岩.柯坪露头碳酸盐岩断裂带不连续构造以滑动面、裂缝带和变形带发育为特征.根据形态识别出平直截切型、弯曲起伏型、渐变条带型三种类型滑动面.破碎带中裂缝带发育,裂缝充填少,是良好输导通道;断层核部存在...     

塔里木盆地塔中地区奥陶系构造-沉积模式与碳酸盐岩裂缝储层预测

奥陶系碳酸盐岩是塔中地区油气勘探的重要目的层。本文在讨论塔中地区奥陶纪区域构造背景和奥陶系岩性段划分的基础上,建立了塔中地区奥陶系构造 -沉积模式,并用三维有限元数值模拟方法对塔中地区有利碳酸盐岩裂缝储层发育区进行了预测,以期指导塔中地区碳酸盐岩的油气勘探。     

The geochemical characteristics of aqueous rare-earth elements in shallow karst groundwater in Guiyang City,China

Fifty-seven shallow groundwater samples were collected from Guiyang karst basin, China, to analyze the aqueous rare-earth elements in low-water seasons and it is shown that the total amount of rare-earth elements (ΣREE) in karst groundwater is exceedingly low compared with that in carbonate rocks or weathering crusts of carbonate rocks, and ranges from 0.01 to 0.43, from 0.03 to 0.27, from 0.03 to 0.19 and from 0.05 to 1.38 μg·L-1 for dolomite, dolomitic & limestone, limestone and clastic rock aquifer, respectively. Both distributions and contents of rare-earth elements (REE) in karst groundwater reflect the lithology of host rocks or weathering crusts of carbonate rocks through which groundwater flows. The chondrite-normalized patterns show a non-flat profile with higher enrichment of slightly light rare-earth elements (LREE) than heavy rare-earth elements (HREE), prominent fractionation between LREE and HREE, negative Ce anomalies and negative or positive Eu anomalies. There is more obvious fractionation between LREE and HREE in groundwater than that in carbonate rocks and their weathering crusts due to high contents of HCO3? and PH in groundwater. In shallow karst groundwater, REE(CO3)n2n-3 (n=1 and 2) is the main inorganic species of REE. But for a clastic rock aquifer, both REESO4+ and REECO3+ are the main inorganic species of REE. Species of REE in groundwater is closely associated with the hydrochemical type of groundwater which is predominated by the lithology of host rocks, groundwater-rock interaction and weathering-pedogenesis of carbonate rocks.     

塔里木盆地塔中地区奥陶系构造－沉积模式与碳酸盐岩裂缝储层预测

奥陶系碳酸盐岩是塔中地区油气勘探的重要目的层。本文在讨论塔中地区奥陶纪区域构造背景和奥陶系岩性段划分的基础上,建立了塔中地区奥陶系构造－沉积模式,并用三维有限元数值模拟方法对塔中地区有利碳酸盐岩裂缝储层发育区进行了预测,以期指导塔中地区碳酸盐岩的油气勘探。     

Quantifying a critical marl thickness for vertical fracture extension using field data and numerical experiments

In fractured reservoirs characterized by low matrix permeability,fracture networks control the main fluid flow paths.However,in layered reservoirs,the vertical extension of fractures is often restricted to single layers.In this study,we explored the effect of changing marl/shale thickness on fracture extension using comprehensive field data and numerical modeling.The field data were sampled from coastal exposures of Liassic limestone-marl/shale alternations in Wales and Somerset(Bristol Channel Basin,UK).The vertical fracture traces of more than 4000 fractures were mapped in detail.Six sections were selected to represent a variety of layer thicknesses.Besides the field data also thin sections were analyzed.Numerical models of fracture extension in a two-layer limestone-marl system were based on field data and laboratory measurements of Young's moduli.The modeled principal stress magnitude σ_3 along the lithological contact was used as an indication for fracture extension through marls.Field data exhibit good correlation(R~2=0.76) between fracture extension and marl thickness,the thicker the marl layer the fewer fractures propagate through.The model results show that almost no tensile stress reaches the top of the marl layer when the marls are thicker than 30 cm.For marls that are less than 20 cm,the propagation of stress is more dependent on the stiffness of the marls.The higher the contrast between limestone and marl stiffness the lower the stress that is transmitted into the marl layer.In both model experiments and field data the critical marl thickness for fracture extension is ca.15-20 cm.This quantification of critical marl thicknesses can be used to improve predictions of fracture networks and permeability in layered rocks.Up-or downsampling methods often ignore spatially continuous impermeable layers with thicknesses that are under the detection limit of seismic data.However,ignoring these layers can lead to overestimates of the overall permeability.Therefore,the understanding of how fractures propagate and terminate through impermeable layers will help to improve the characterization of conventional reservoirs.     

Role of fluid mixing and wallrock sulfidation in gold mineralization at the Semna mine area,central Eastern Desert of Egypt: Evidence from hydrothermal alteration,fluid inclusions and stable isotope data

The Semna gold deposit is one of several vein-type gold occurrences in the central Eastern Desert of Egypt, where gold-bearing quartz veins are confined to shear zones close to the boundaries of small granitoid stocks. The Semna gold deposit is related to a series of sub-parallel quartz veins along steeply dipping WNW-trending shear zones, which cut through tectonized metagabbro and granodiorite rocks. The orebodies exhibit a complex structure of massive and brecciated quartz consistent with a change of the paleostress field from tensional to simple shear regimes along the pre-existing fault segments. Textural, structural and mineralogical evidence, including open space structures, quartz stockwork and alteration assemblages, constrain on vein development during an active fault system. The ore mineral assemblage includes pyrite, chalcopyrite, subordinate arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite and gold. Hydrothermal chlorite, carbonate, pyrite, chalcopyrite and kaolinite are dominant in the altered metaggabro; whereas, quartz, sericite, pyrite, kaolinite and alunite characterize the granodiorite rocks in the alteration zones. Mixtures of alunite, vuggy silica and disseminated sulfides occupy the interstitial open spaces, common at fracture intersections. Partial recrystallization has rendered the brecciation and open space textures suggesting that the auriferous quartz veins were formed at moderately shallow depths in the transition zone between mesothermal and epithermal veins.Petrographic and microthermometric studies aided recognition of CO₂-rich, H₂O-rich and mixed H₂O–CO₂ fluid inclusions in the gold-bearing quartz veins. The H₂O–CO₂ inclusions are dominant over the other two types and are characterized by variable vapor: liquid ratios. These inclusions are interpreted as products of partial mixing of two immiscible carbonic and aqueous fluids. The generally light δ³⁴S of pyrite and chalcopyrite may suggest a magmatic source of sulfur. Spread in the final homogenization temperatures and bulk inclusion densities are likely due to trapping under pressure fluctuation through repeated fracture opening and sealing. Conditions of gold deposition are estimated on basis of the fluid inclusions and sulfur isotope data as 226–267 °C and 350–1100 bar, under conditions transitional between mesothermal and epithermal systems.The Semna gold deposit can be attributed to interplay of protracted volcanic activity (Dokhan Volcanics?), fluid mixing, wallrock sulfidation and a structural setting favoring gold deposition. Gold was transported as Au-bisulfide complexes under weak acid conditions concomitant with quartz–sericite–pyrite alteration, and precipitated through a decrease in gold solubility due to fluid cooling, mixing with meteoric waters and variations in pH and fO₂.     

福建马坑铁（钼）矿床矽卡岩矿物学特征及分带研究

马坑大型铁(钼)矿赋存于莒舟-大洋花岗岩体外接触带黄龙组(C2h)灰岩和林地组(C1l)碎屑岩层间构造破碎带中,铁矿与矽卡岩密切共生,但矿床成因尚存在争议。本文就马坑铁矿矽卡岩进行了矿物学特征研究。电子探针分析结果表明:该矿矽卡岩矿物组合主要为辉石、石榴子石和钙蔷薇辉石,退化蚀变岩矿物组合为角闪石、绿帘石、绿泥石、石英等。单斜辉石以透辉石和钙铁辉石为主,仅存在少量锰钙辉石;似辉石为钙蔷薇辉石和蔷薇辉石;石榴子石端元成分以钙铁榴石为主,钙铝榴石少量;角闪石属于钙角闪石,矿物学特征表明它们形成于相对较氧化的条件下。马坑铁矿的矽卡岩是由热流体沿灰岩与碎屑岩之间层间构造破碎带交代形成的,铁矿石大部分产于矽卡岩内,磁铁矿多稍晚于矽卡岩,不仅广泛交代矽卡岩,而且还直接交代灰岩、砂岩等围岩,呈交代结构;主矿体下盘常出现厚层石英岩,碎屑岩也出现了明显的交代,矽卡岩分带现象普遍,与典型矽卡岩矿床特征一致。结合矿床地质特征,马坑铁矿矿床类型应为层控矽卡岩型矿床。     

四川若尔盖阿西金矿岩石学及岩石地球化学特征

阿西金矿地处川甘陕“金三角”成矿集中区,中三叠统为本区内最重要的金矿源层和赋矿层。阿西金矿田的形成经历了一个从沉积－成岩－富集成矿的漫长复杂的由量的积累到质的飞跃过程,是多阶段、多层次、多因素作用有机结合的产物。赋矿岩系特征表明,阿西金矿田的主要成矿环境为半深海斜坡环境。区内岩石类型极为复杂,三大岩类均有产出。主要有细砂岩、杂砂岩、沉凝灰岩、碳酸盐岩、硅质岩;变粒岩、石英岩、角岩、大理岩、夕卡岩、角砾岩;岩浆岩类主要为英安斑岩（玢岩）、闪长岩等。其中最重要的赋矿岩石为石英岩,其主要特征为具块状、不规则条带状构造,呈褐黄色／浅灰色变余层状构造。由石英（75％－80％）、高龄石（10％－15％）、绢云母（2％－3％）、钛铁质（3％－4％）、玉髓（2％－3％）及少量碳质组成。其岩石化学成分与典型硅质岩相比,SiO2偏低,Al2O3总体偏高,出现较强的高岭土化。通过研究认为,该区主要赋矿岩石石英岩的原岩应属正常碎屑沉积岩。     

Finite-element 3D modeling of stress patterns around a dipping fault

Stresses in a block around a dipping fracture simulating a damage zone of a fault are reconstructed by finite-element modeling. A fracture corresponding to a fault of different lengths, with its plane dipping at different angles, is assumed to follow a lithological interface and to experience either compression or shear. The stress associated with the destruction shows an asymmetrical pattern with different distances from the highest stress sites to the fault plane in the hanging and foot walls. As the dip angle decreases,the high-stress zone becomes wider in the hanging wall but its width changes negligibly in the foot wall.The length of the simulated fault and the deformation type affect only the magnitude of maximum stress,which remains asymmetrical relative to the fault plane. The Lh/Lfratio, where Lhand Lfare the widths of high-stress zones in the hanging and foot walls of the fault, respectively, is inversely proportional to the fault plane dip. The arithmetic mean of this ratio over different fault lengths in fractures subject to compression changes from 0.29 at a dip of 80°to 1.67 at 30°. In the case of shift displacement, ratios are increasing to 1.2 and 2.94, respectively.Usually they consider vertical fault planes and symmetry in a damage zone of faults. Following that assumption may cause errors in reconstructions of stress and fault patterns in areas of complex structural setting. According geological data, we know the structures are different and asymmetric in hanging and foot walls of fault. Thus, it is important to quantify zones of that asymmetry. The modeling results have to be taken into account in studies of natural faults, especially for practical applications in seismic risk mapping, engineering geology, hydrogeology, and tectonics.     

Carbon–oxygen isotope and trace element constraints on how fluids percolate faulted limestones from the San Andreas Fault system: partitioning of fluid sources and pathways

Understanding the way fluids flow in fault zones is of prime importance to develop correct models of earthquake mechanics, especially in the case of the abnormally weak San Andreas Fault (SAF) system. Because fluid flow can leave detectable signatures in rocks, geochemistry is essential to bring light on this topic. The present detailed study combines, for the first time, C–O isotope analyses with a comprehensive trace element data set to examine the geometry of fluid flow within a significant fault system hosted by a carbonate sequence, from a single locality across the Little Pine Fault–SAF system. Such a fault zone contains veins, deformation zones, and their host rocks. Stable isotope geochemistry is used to establish a relative scale of integrated fluid–rock ratios. Carbonate δ¹⁸O varies between 28‰ and 15‰ and δ¹³C between 5‰ and −7‰. From highest to lowest delta values, thus from least to most infiltrated, are the host rocks, the vein fillings, and the deformation zone fillings, respectively. Infiltration increases toward fault core. The fluids are H₂O–CO₂ mixtures. Two fluid sources, one internal and the other external, are found. The external fluid is inferred to come essentially from metamorphism of the Franciscan formation underneath. The internal (local) fluid is provided by a 30% volume reduction of the host limestones resulting from pressure solution and pore size reduction. Most trace elements, including the lanthanides, show enrichment at the 100-m scale in host carbonate rocks as fluid–rock ratios increase toward the fault core. In contrast, the same trace element concentrations are low, relative to host rocks, in veins and deformation zone carbonate fillings, and this difference in concentration increases as fluid–rock ratio increases toward the fault core. We suggest that the fluid trace elements are scavenged by complexation with organic matter in the host rocks. Elemental complexation is especially illustrated by large fractionation of Y–Ho and Nb–Ta geochemical pairs. Complexation associated with external fluid flow has a significant effect on trace element enrichment (up to 700% relative enrichment) while concentration by pressure solution associated with volume decrease of host rocks has a more limited effect (up to 40% relative enrichment). Our observations from the millimeter to the kilometer scale call for the partitioning of fluid sources and pathways, and for a mixed focused–pervasive fluid flow mechanism. The fluid mainly flows within veins and deformation zones and, simultaneously, within at least 10 cm from these channels, part of the fluid flows pervasively in the host rock, which controls the fluid composition. Scavenging of the fluid rare earth elements (REE) by host rocks is responsible for the formation of REE-depleted vein and deformation zone carbonate fillings. Fluid flow is not only restricted to veins or deformation zones as commonly believed. An important part of fluid flow takes place in host rocks near fault zones. Hence, the nature of the lithologies hosting fault zones must be considered in order to take into account the role of fluids in the seismic cycle.