6月暴雨数据预报客观释用分具预报系统

以日本降水数值预报为指导产品，结合本州天气实际，通过寻找因子，建立６月暴雨客观自动分县预报系统，该系统在１９９６年业务试运行中，已显示出较强的预报能力。     

湘西自治州5—7月暴雨客观自动预报系统

湘西自治州5～7月暴雨客观自动预报系统（以下简称系统）,用Turbo Basic语言编写,DOS下运行,在网络工作站上实现从原始资料到预报结论全过程。该系统客观、自动化程度较高。从实时资料、物理量诊断等信息中自行采集预报参数,对数值预报产品、卫星云图等少量资料采用人机对话方式。并具有自动识别天气系统、判别错情等功能。同时该系统还拥有较为丰富的预报知识,选用高度浓缩的预报因子和因子群,并对逐项知识进行严格和系统的检验及优化。使其具有较高的概括率和准确率。通过1995年5～7月投入业务使用。该系统运行速度快而可靠,得出的预报结论客观、准确。     

江苏省暴雪预报系统

暴雪预报系统是在普查１９７０－１９９２年资料，对暴雪的天气形势分型的基础上建立的，通过计算预报场与各型平均场的相似离度判别有无暴雪产生，进而通过寻求与历史样本的最佳相似预报暴雪落区。该系统业务应用效果令人满意。     

布尔方程组解集在天气预报中的应用

通过对而尔方程组同天气预报系统对应关系的分析,指出布尔方程组是预报系统逻辑结构的具体表征。据此,预报系统在微机上运行时,可将是否符合预报系统的预报规则,转换为是否满足布尔方程的解集,从而提高预报系统在微机上的运行效率。同时,在分析布尔方程组解集布尔积因子取值规律的基础上,揭示了它同预报因在整个预报系统中作用主次的关联,为预报因子作用主次的诊断,提供了可行的方法,并进一步提高预报系统的运行效率。     

四川盆地中期寒潮预报概念模型及自动预报系统研究

从影响气温变化的物理过程入手，针对中期寒潮天气的预报对象，分析与其物理过程有关的天气学因子的变化规律，建立四川盆地中期寒潮预报的概念模型，利用数值预报产品，建立冬半年寒潮自动预报系统，该系统不仅能准确预报寒潮或强冷空气侵袭盆地的开始时间，还能较准确地提供过程降温幅度预报。     

上海地区强对流天气短时预报系统

以强对流天气的发生、发展规律为依据,从中尺度数值预报模式输出结果、Ｄｏｐｐｌｅｒ天气雷达、静止气象卫星、ＭＩＣＡＰＳ系统和自动雨量站网等获取大气运动的各种尺度动力条件、水汽条件、大气稳定度和触发机制,各种天气实况等动态变化资料,结合预报员经验,建立了“上海地区强对流天气短时预报系统”（以下简称“预报系统”）,预报系统产品包括强对流天气的形势分析、０～１２ｈ展望预报、０～３ｈ滚动预报及警报。预报系统     

汕头气象台预报业务工作站简介

1前言基于预报业务的应用目的，把一些较好的预报工具或科研成果进行优化完善，并由总控菜单程序把各预报系统集成起来，在同一中文平台上运行，通过计算机网络调用各预报系统所需资料，从而形成一套较完整的业务系统，供日常预报值班使用，这对于促进科研成果业务化，提高预报水平起着积极作用。2几种预报业务系统简介及简单集成方法2．且潮汕地区4～6月逐日降水分片预报系统该系统在收集预报员经验的基础上，应用数值预告产品、天气形势分型、物理量场特征及有关实时气象资料，根据专家系统理论和方法，采用逐步判别法作出潮汕地区4～6月…     

6—7月江苏区域5天暴雨趋势中期预报系统

本文介绍了江苏省气象台研制的区域暴雨中期预报系统．该系统选用距离系数相似法、指数相似法等统计方法将欧洲中心预报的500hPa高度场与历史上500hPa高度场找相似，及中期暴雨天气过程概念模式制作预报．从天气学意义出发，用ECMWF预报的500hPa高度场、850kPa风场、温度场建立了一系列的中期时效的暴雨预报指标。该系统从ECMWF的格点资料处理到预报结果的给出，全部是由计算机自动连续进行的，在日常业务工作中使用有迅速、及时、准确的优点。     

华南登陆台风特大暴雨诊断预报业务系统

保护造成华南登陆台风特大暴雨增幅的物理成因及天气学等因子，采用人工智能和计算机技术处理，建立一套客观、定量的预报业务系统。     

东营市冰雹预报自动化系统

利用1989～1998年6月东营市冰雹个例和08时的实时资料进行相关分析,筛选出相关显著性的因子组成典型场,经过消空处理,利用逐步判别方法,建立了东营市6月冰雹预报自动化系统。系统直接从“9210”卫星网自动调用资料,操作简便,经1999,2000年6月使用,冰雹预报效果较好。     

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC LOW-FREQUENCY OSCILLATION ON THE IMMIGRATION OF NILAPARVATA LUGENS(STL) IN HUNAN AND JIANGXI PROVINCES

Various features of the atmospheric environment affect the number of migratory insects, besides their initial population. However, little is known about the impact of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation(10 to 90 days) on insect migration. A case study was conducted to ascertain the influence of low-frequency atmospheric oscillation on the immigration of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens(Stl), in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. The results showed the following:(1) The number of immigrating N. lugens from April to June of 2007 through 2016 mainly exhibited a periodic oscillation of 10 to 20 days.(2) The 10-20 d low-frequency number of immigrating N. lugens was significantly correlated with a low-frequency wind field and a geopotential height field at 850 h Pa.(3) During the peak phase of immigration, southwest or south winds served as a driving force and carried N. lugens populations northward, and when in the back of the trough and the front of the ridge, the downward airflow created a favorable condition for N. lugens to land in the study area. In conclusion, the northward migration of N. lugens was influenced by a low-frequency atmospheric circulation based on the analysis of dynamics. This study was the first research connecting atmospheric low-frequency oscillation to insect migration.     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

Field Experimental Investigations on the Fe(II)- and Fe(III)-Content in Cloudwater Samples

The Fe(II)/Fe(III)-partition in cloudwater samples collected during two field campaigns is evaluated. It turned out that the simultaneous occurrence of complexing and reducing substances in the atmosphere and the cloud processing increase the solubility of iron compounds present in aerosol particles. A correlation between the concentration of iron(II) in the liquid phase and the intensity of the solar irradiation was observed for most of the cloudwater samples. This could be due to the fact that both the photochemical reduction of the iron(III) complexes and the photochemical reductive dissolution of iron(III)(hydr)oxides are depending on the pH-value. Iron(II) seems to be oxidised back to iron(III) preferably by hydrogen peroxide during the night. Positive correlations were received e.g. between the concentration of dissolved iron and the concentration of oxalate and between the percentage of iron(III) and the concentration of hydrogen peroxide. A negative correlation was found e.g. between the concentration of dissolved iron and the pH-value. The uncertainty of the whole process of sampling and analysis was investigated and the conformity of the results was satisfying considering the sometimes difficult conditions during a field campaign.     

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

淮河流域水文极值预测模型研究

为探索气候变化影响下水文极值的非平稳性和预测方法,建立了水文极值非平稳广义极值（GEV）分布的统计预测模型。利用1952-2010年淮河上游流域累计面雨量和流量年最大值资料、同期500 hPa环流特征量资料以及17个CMIP5模式对环流特征量的模拟结果,筛选出对水文极值影响显著的年平均北半球极涡强度指数作为GEV分布参数的预测因子。分析了在RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下2006-2050年淮河上游流域水文极值对气候变化的响应。结果表明,10年以下与10年以上重现期的水文极值在非平稳过程中呈现前者下降而后者上升的相反变化趋势;多模型预测的集合平均在未来情景中均呈现上升趋势,情景排放量越大增幅越大,重现期越长增幅也越大。与极值的常态相比,极值的极端态更易受气候变化影响。     

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS DATA OF AIR–SEA TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND ITS VARIATION ACROSS SOUTH CHINA SEA IN THE PAST 35 YEARS

Using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) and ERA-Interim data, spatial distributions of air-sea temperature difference(ASTD) in the South China Sea(SCS) for the past 35 years are compared,and variations of spatial and temporal distributions of ASTD in this region are addressed using empirical orthogonal function decomposition and wavelet analysis methods. The results indicate that both ICOADS and ERA-Interim data can reflect actual distribution characteristics of ASTD in the SCS, but values of ASTD from the ERA-Interim data are smaller than those of the ICOADS data in the same region. In addition, the ASTD characteristics from the ERA-Interim data are not obvious inshore. A seesaw-type, north-south distribution of ASTD is dominant in the SCS; i.e., a positive peak in the south is associated with a negative peak in the north in November, and a negative peak in the south is accompanied by a positive peak in the north during April and May. Interannual ASTD variations in summer or autumn are decreasing. There is a seesaw-type distribution of ASTD between Beibu Bay and most of the SCS in summer, and the center of large values is in the Nansha Islands area in autumn. The ASTD in the SCS has a strong quasi-3a oscillation period in all seasons, and a quasi-11 a period in winter and spring. The ASTD is positively correlated with the Nio3.4 index in summer and autumn but negatively correlated in spring and winter.     

LOW-FREQUENCY CIRCULATION AND EXTENDED-RANGE FORECAST IN CONNECTION WITH AUTUMN EXTREME HEAVY RAINFALL PROCESS IN HAINAN

Observed daily precipitation data from the National Meteorological Observatory in Hainan province and daily data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-2 dataset from 1981 to 2014 are used to analyze the relationship between Hainan extreme heavy rainfall processes in autumn (referred to as EHRPs) and 10–30 d low-frequency circulation. Based on the key low-frequency signals and the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2 (CFSv2) model forecasting products, a dynamical-statistical method is established for the extended-range forecast of EHRPs. The results suggest that EHRPs have a close relationship with the 10–30 d low-frequency oscillation of 850 hPa zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north, and that they basically occur during the trough phase of the low-frequency oscillation of zonal wind. The latitudinal propagation of the low-frequency wave train in the middle-high latitudes and the meridional propagation of the low-frequency wave train along the coast of East Asia contribute to the ‘north high (cold), south low (warm)’ pattern near Hainan Island, which results in the zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north reaching its trough, consequently leading to EHRPs. Considering the link between low-frequency circulation and EHRPs, a low-frequency wave train index (LWTI) is defined and adopted to forecast EHRPs by using NCEP CFSv2 forecasting products. EHRPs are predicted to occur during peak phases of LWTI with value larger than 1 for three or more consecutive forecast days. Hindcast experiments for EHRPs in 2015–2016 indicate that EHRPs can be predicted 8–24 d in advance, with an average period of validity of 16.7 d.     

Model simulations of rainout and washout from a warm stratiform cloud

A one-dimensional, time-dependent cloud model with parameterized microphysics is used to investigate the processes which control the rainout and washout of soluble gases from warm, precipitating stratiform clouds. Calculations are presented simulating the distributions of soluble species within and below the cloud layer and in the precipitating raindrops as a function of time and species' solubility. Our calculations indicate that for species with low solubility, wet removal processes are relatively slow and thus do not significantly affect the species' gas-phase abundance. As a result, the removal of low-solubility species by rainout and washout is controlled by thermodynamic processes with the concentration of the species in cloud and rainwater largely determined by the species' solubility. For highly soluble species on the other hand, dissolution into cloud droplets and removal in rain is quite rapid and the abundance of highly soluble species within and below the cloud falls rapidly as soon as the precipitation begins. Because of this rapid decrease in concentration, we find that for highly soluble species: concentrations in cloud droplets near the cloud base can exceed that of raindrops by factors of 2 to 10; washout can dominate over rainout as a removal mechanism; and that, after an extended period of rainfall, the rate of removal becomes independent of the microphysical properties and rainfall rate of the cloud and is controlled by the rate of transport of material into the precipitating column by horizontal advection.     

CBDR&RC in a regime applicable to all

The principle of common, but differentiated, responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR&RC) is fundamental to the UNFCCC. Some options for a nuanced model of differentiation that addresses both responsibility and capability in a changing world are explored, such as new categories of countries, and some of the political issues that such a model might face are considered. The strengths and limitations of options for graduation based on ‘objective’ criteria such that countries could move between categories or ‘graduate’ – an option provided by the UNFCCC – are discussed. Countries could also choose to join another club (e.g. the G20), self-elect into categories or differentiate among themselves implicitly by accepting different commitments and actions. CBDR&RC will form part of the overall legally binding agreement, and must apply symmetry in some respects and differentiation in others to the commitments and actions contained therein. Some possible characteristics of CBDR&RC of relevance in a regime ‘applicable to all’ are outlined. These include promoting climate action and using mechanisms available in the UNFCCC to instil dynamism. Differentiation on mitigation must consider the distinctions between absolute and relative reductions, as well as commitments to outcomes and implementation. CBDR&RC should be applied to mitigation, adaptation, and the means of implementation.

Policy relevance

In Durban, Parties agreed to negotiate a regime ‘applicable to all’, which sent a political signal that there should be greater symmetry between nations. The world has changed since the UNFCCC was negotiated in 1992. It is now less helpful to think only in terms of two groups of countries (e.g. Annex I and non-Annex I), and evident that there are significant differences between member states. This requires a more nuanced interpretation of the principles of equity and CBDR&RC, which is an integral part of the UNFCCC. The options for the different approaches outlined in this article might help in the construction of a more nuanced model. All must do more, while some must do more still than others. To achieve this, some defining characteristics of CBDR&RC in a regime applicable to all are suggested.     

How the “Best” Models Project the Future Precipitation Change in China

Projected changes in summer precipitation characteristics in China during the 21st century are assessed using the monthly precipitation outputs of the ensemble of three “best” models under the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A1B, A2, and B1 scenarios. The excellent reproducibility of the models both in spatial and temporal patterns for the precipitation in China makes the projected summer precipitation change more believable for the future 100 years. All the three scenarios experiments indicate a consistent enhancement of summer precipitation in China in the 21st century. However, the projected summer precipitation in China demonstrates large variability between sub-regions. The projected increase in precipitation in South China is significant and persistent, as well as in North China. Meanwhile, in the early period of the 21st century, the region of Northeast China is projected to be much drier than the present. But, this situation changes and the precipitation intensifies later, with a precipitation anomaly increase of 12.4%–20.4% at the end of the 21st century. The region of the Xinjiang Province probably undergoes a drying trend in the future 100 years, and is projected to decrease by 1.7%–3.6% at the end of the 21st century. There is no significant long-term change of the projected summer precipitation in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River valley. A high level of agreement of the ensemble of the regional precipitation change in some parts of China is found across scenarios but smaller changes are projected for the B1 scenario and slightly larger changes for the A2 scenario.