用于GCM耦合的积雪模型的设计

文中描述一个一维的积雪分层模型,目的是要刻划雪盖随季节的变化,与其下冻土变动模型一起,构成完整的雪盖模型。为了保持一定精度,并能用于大气环模式（ＧＣＭ）研究,模型对积雪内部热量及质量输送过程的描述精细程度及计算时分层多少均有所考虑。模型中,改用内能代替温度作为预报量,克服了相变时直接预报温度时造成的计算误差,有效地预报了相变过程。对于积雪密度的变化,考虑了雪花形态的破坏而引起的密度变化及由于压实过程而引起的密度变化。并对各分层自重产生压实过程推导了相应的公式,在模型中对雪盖的光学特性、热力学特性及水流流动特性参数化方案设计也进行了分析。本简化模型的模拟结果与精细积雪模型的比较,具有几乎同等的精度,与俄罗斯的Ｙｅｒ－ｓｈｏｖ站实测数据相比,吻合十分理想。     

CCM3模式中LSM积雪方案的改进研究(Ⅰ):修改方案介绍及其单点试验

为了改进美国NCARCCM3全球模式中LSM陆面模型中的积雪方案的模拟效果,在Sun等[1]SAST积雪模型的基础上,作了部分修改后,加进CCM3模式LSM模型中.该方案根据格点区域平均积雪深度的不同,把地面雪盖划分为1到3层不等,能在积雪表层和中间层更好地描述温度的日变化和季节变化;较详细地考虑了雪的热传导、太阳辐射的穿透吸收、雪的融化、液态水的储存、渗透和再冻结等积雪内部的主要物理过程;根据Nimbus-7卫星实测雪深资料修改了积雪覆盖度和雪面反照率的计算方案.利用前苏联6个台站1978-1983年的实测积雪资料和大气强迫数据,进行了单点模拟试验,结果表明,新的积雪参数化方案能够较好地再现积雪深度和雪水当量的逐日和季节变化特征,部分提高了积雪参数化方案对积雪的模拟能力.     

区域气候模式研究进展

全面回顾了区域气候模式的分类、发展和最新研究动态，指出区域气候模式研究有了长足的发展，其中重要的有：加入雪盖、土壤水等作用的陆面过程，全球模式与区域细网格模式的嵌套由一维发展到三维，由一层发展到多层，发展了更加合理的参数化方案；但也存在许多不足，模式提供的植被资料与实情相差很大，对于沙漠地区的植被盖度的算法不尽合理，对次网格地形及对其湍流通量输送过程的刻画不够细致等。因此，建议利用遥感手段采用非线性方法(如分形等)对遥感资料施行反演，进行多尺度的双向模式嵌套。     

地表参数对T106模式预报的影响

利用ISLSCP的土壤湿度、植被和NOAA的实时雪盖、海温资料, 通过改变T106模式的地表参数及改进地表通量计算方法, 探讨了地表参数对T106谱模式预报效果的影响.试验表明, 地表参数及地面过程对T106模式的预报结果有较大影响, 试验方案改进了模式的预报效果, 尤其对西太平洋副热带高压的预报, 如对副高特征值588 dagpm线北界和西伸脊点、面积指数和强度指数以及副高整体进退预报都比业务模式更接近实况.     

根系吸水过程参数化方案对青藏高原陆面过程模拟的影响研究

根系吸水过程对地表能量平衡和水循环起着重要作用，目前不同的根系吸水过程参数化方案对青藏高原陆面过程模拟的影响尚不明确，探讨相关参数化方案的影响，可以为今后建立陆面过程模式根系参数化方案提供参考。本文利用2010年6月1日至9月30日青藏高原玛曲站的观测资料作为大气强迫资料，驱动BCC_AVIM模式（北京气候中心陆面模式）引入不同的根系吸水过程参数化方案，对玛曲站2010年6月1日至9月30日时段感热通量、潜热通量、土壤温度、土壤含水量等要素进行数值模拟，分析根系吸水过程参数化方案对青藏高原地区陆面过程的影响。模式中有关根系吸水过程的参数化方案主要分为根分布模型和土壤水分对根系有效性函数两类，根分布模型用Jackson方案、Schenk方案替换，土壤水分对根系有效性函数用Li方案、LSM1.0方案、CLM4.5方案替换。对比结果表明:不同的根系吸水过程参数化方案对土壤温度、土壤含水量的模拟影响较小，对感热通量、潜热通量模拟影响较大，尤其对冠层蒸腾量模拟差异显著，相关参数化方案的变动直接影响冠层蒸腾量。两类方案模拟的差异受降水的影响，在多雨期，根分布对比方案与原模式方案模拟的感热、潜热通量间存在较大差异；在少雨期，土壤水分对根系有效性函数对比方案与原模式方案模拟的感热、潜热通量间存在较大差异。     

中国南海台风模式(TRAMS-v2.0)技术特点及其预报性能

中国南海台风模式(TRAMS)是基于GRAPES的非静力中尺度模式,采用半隐半拉格朗日时间差分方案,借助Helmholtz方程进行隐式求解,并在原模式的基础上,采用三维静力参考大气、非线性项分步计算、物理过程倾向隐式处理及与动力过程耦合等技术,形成新的模式动力过程计算方案。模式物理过程主要包括:长短波辐射、云微物理、湍流和深浅对流和海陆面等下垫面参数化方案,新版南海台风模式重点研发了海陆面参数化方案(SMS方案),改进了积云参数化方案(NSAS方案),并且引入地形重力波拖曳参数化方案(KA95方案)。预报模式的覆盖范围:81~161°E,0~51°N。水平格距为0.18°,垂直方向分65层,时间积分步长为100 s。2015年批量试验结果表明,新版南海台风模式预报性能稳定,误差较小,与EC全球模式同样本比较,发现短时效(如0~24 h)两模式台风路径预报误差水平基本相当,而较长时效(如48~72 h),南海台风模式的预报误差小于EC全球模式,具备较好的业务应用价值。     

CCM3模式中LSM积雪方案的改进研究（I）：修改方案介绍及其单点试验

为了改进美国NCAR CCM3全球模式中LSM陆面模型中的积雪方案的模拟效果，在Sun等SAST积雪模型的基础上，作了部分修改后，加进CCM3模式LSM模型中。该方案根据格点区域平均积雪深度的不同，把地面雪盖划分为1到3层不等，能在积雪表层和中间层更好地描述温度的日变化和季节变化；较详细地考虑了雪的热传导、太阳辐射的穿透吸收、雪的融化、液态水的储存、渗透和再冻结等积雪内部的主要物理过程；根据Nimbus-7卫星实测雪深资料修改了积雪覆盖度和雪面反照率的计算方案。利用前苏联6个台站1978—1983年的实测积雪资料和大气强迫数据，进行了单点模拟试验，结果表明，新的积雪参数化方案能够较好地再现积雪深度和雪水当量的逐日和季节变化特征，部分提高了积雪参数化方案对积雪的模拟能力。     

土壤-植被-大气系统水分散失机理的数值模拟

以Eeardorff(1978)提出的陆面参数化方案和Noilhan等人(1989)土壤水分参数化方案为基础,对陆面物理过程参数化方案进行了改进,在模式中较详细地考虑了植被和地面的各种物理参量如地面和叶面的反射率和发射率,净叶面面积指数,植被的物理阻抗等,并与大气边界层模式耦合。应用该模式模拟了沙漠及绿洲地区不同植被覆盖率情况下的蒸散量、土壤含水量和表面温度的日变化和连续变化特征;对不同植被覆盖率的热量平衡特征进行了比较。结果表明该模式较好地反映了地表蒸散3阶段的变化趋势特征,揭示出下垫面热量平衡分量间的相互转换过程。该模式可以用于中尺度的气象和区域气候模式,模拟和预测不同植被覆盖情况下近地层的热量输送和水分散失情况。     

对流参数化影响热带气旋的模拟研究

利用GRAPES-TCM模式对2008年登陆我国的9个热带气旋(TC)进行了44次试验,分析了积云对流参数化方案Kain-Fritsch (KF)方案与Betts—Miller-Janjic(BMJ)方案对TC预报的影响.结果表明,KF方案预报TC的总体效果要好于BMJ方案,BMJ方案的优势主要体现在对强TC强度的预报.不同的对流参数化方案对TC路径的影响没有明显差异,但对TC强度和降水的影响与TC初始强度有关;不同的对流参数化方案预报的TC强度和降水强度各不相同,但不同方案预报TC强度的差异与TC降水强度的差异基本一致.采用不同的对流参数化方案预报TC强度和降水随着TC初始强度的不同而表现出不同的特点.     

WRF模式物理参数化方案对一次局地大暴雨预报的影响研究

基于WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting)模式及其3Dvar(3-Dimentional Variational)资料同化系统,采用36、12、4 km嵌套网格进行快速更新循环同化和不同的微物理及积云对流参数化方案对比试验,对2011年5月8日鲁中一次局地大暴雨过程进行了研究。结果表明,快速更新循环同化地面观测资料是影响模式降水落区预报准确性的关键因素,不同的微物理和积云对流参数化方案主要影响降水强度预报。采用不同的微物理参数化方案和积云对流参数化方案进行降水预报对比试验表明,LIN方案和WSM6(WRF Single-Moment 6-class)微物理参数化方案对降水预报均较好,LIN方案降水预报较WSM6方案略强。4 km网格预报使用K-F (Kain-Fritsch)积云对流参数化方案或不使用积云对流参数化方案,预报的降水均较好。4 km网格使用旧的K-F积云对流参数化方案,预报的近地层大气风场偏弱,导致大气动力抬升作用偏弱,从而造成模式降水预报偏弱。     

有关雪盖模型内部及界面过程的参数化方案的敏感试验

In order to develop a seasonal snow model of land surface process as accurately as possible for climatic study, it is necessary to fully understand the effects of important snow internal processes and interaction with air and to get an insight into influence of several relevant parameterization schemes with parameters＇ uncertainty to some degree. Using the snow model (SAST) developed by first author and other one and some useful field observation data, this paper has conducted a series of sensitivity studies on the parameterization schemes. They are relative to compaction process, snow thermal conduction, methodology of layering snow pack and to key parameters such as snow albedo, water holding capacity. Then, based on the results from the sensitivity studies, some useful conclusions for snow cover model improvement are ob tained from the analysis of the results.     

Multi-year Simulations and Experimental Seasonal Predictions for Rainy Seasons in China by Using a Nested Regional Climate Model （RegCM_NCC）. Part Ⅰ： Sensitivity Study

A modified version of the NCAR/RegCM2 has been developed at the National Climate Center （NCC）, China Meteorological Administration, through a series of sensitivity experiments and multi-year simulations and hindcasts, with a special emphasis on the adequate choice of physical parameterization schemes suitable for the East Asian monsoon climate. This regional climate model is nested with the NCC/IAP （Institute of Atmospheric Physics） T63 coupled GCM to make an experimental seasonal prediction for China and East Asia. The four-year （2001 to 2004） prediction results are encouraging. This paper is the first part of a two-part paper, and it mainly describes the sensitivity study of the physical process paraxneterization represented in the model. The systematic errors produced by the different physical parameterization schemes such as the land surface processes, convective precipitation, cloud-radiation transfer process, boundary layer process and large-scale terrain features have been identified based on multi-year and extreme flooding event simulations. A number of comparative experiments has shown that the mass flux scheme （MFS） and Betts-Miller scheme （BM） for convective precipitation, the LPMI （land surface process model I） and LPMII （land surface process model Ⅱ） for the land surface process, the CCM3 radiation transfer scheme for cloud-radiation transfer processes, the TKE （turbulent kinetic energy） scheme for the boundary layer processes and the topography treatment schemes for the Tibetan Plateau are suitable for simulations and prediction of the East Asia monsoon climate in rainy seasons. Based on the above sensitivity study, a modified version of the RegCM2 （RegCM_NCC） has been set up for climate simulations and seasonal predictions.     

Multi-year Simulations and Experimental Seasonal Predictions for Rainy Seasons in China by Using a Nested Regional Climate Model (RegCM_NCC). Part Ⅰ: Sensitivity Study

A modified version of the NCAR/RegCM2 has been developed at the National Climate Center (NCC), China Meteorological Administration, through a series of sensitivity experiments and multi-year simulations and hindcasts, with a special emphasis on the adequate choice of physical parameterization schemes suitable for the East Asian monsoon climate. This regional climate model is nested with the NCC/IAP (Institute of Atmospheric Physics) T63 coupled GCM to make an experimental seasonal prediction for China and East Asia. The four-year (2001 to 2004) prediction results are encouraging. This paper is the first part of a two-part paper, and it mainly describes the sensitivity study of the physical process parameterization represented in the model. The systematic errors produced by the different physical parameterization schemes such as the land surface processes, convective precipitation, cloud-radiation transfer process, boundary layer process and large-scale terrain features have been identified based on multi-year and extreme flooding event simulations. A number of comparative experiments has shown that the mass flux scheme (MFS) and Betts-Miller scheme (BM) for convective precipitation, the LPMI (land surface process model I) and LPMII (land surface process model Ⅱ) for the land surface process, the CCM3 radiation transfer scheme for cloud-radiation transfer processes, the TKE (turbulent kinetic energy) scheme for the boundary layer processes and the topography treatment schemes for the Tibetan Plateau are suitable for simulations and prediction of the East Asia monsoon climate in rainy seasons. Based on the above sensitivity study, a modified version of the RegCM2 (RegCM_NCC) has been set up for climate simulations and seasonal predictions.     

A new snow parameterization for the Météo-France climate model

Both observational and numerical studies demonstrate the sensitivity of the atmosphere to variations in the extent and mass of snow cover. There is therefore a need for simple but realistic snow parameterizations in forecast and climate models. A new snow hydrology scheme has recently been developed at Météo-France for use in the ARPEGE climate model and has been successfully tested against local field measurements in stand-alone experiments. This study describes the global validation of the parameterization in a 3-year integration for the present-day climate within the T42L30 version of ARPEGE. Results are compared with those from a control simulation and with available observed climatologies, in order to assess the impact of the new snow parameterization on the simulated surface climate. The seasonal cycle of the Northern Hemisphere snow cover is clearly improved when using the new scheme. The snow pack is still slightly overestimated in winter, but its poleward retreat is better reproduced during the melting season. As a consequence, the modified GCM performs well in simulating the springtime continental heating, which may play a strong role in the simulation of the Asian summer monsoon.     

Numerical Simulation of the Evolution of Snow Cover and Its Sensitivity Experiments

By using Comprehensive Land Surface Model (CLSM), three snow cases, i.e., France Col de Porte 1993/1994, 1994/1995 and BOREAS SSA-OJP 1994/1995, were simulated. The simulated results were compared with the observations to examine the capability of the model to describe the evolutions of snow cover under two different land cover conditions. Several sensitivity experiments were performed to investigate the effects of the parameterization schemes of some snow cover internal processes and vegetation on the model results. Results suggest that the CLSM simulates the basic processes of snow cover accurately and describes the features of snow cover evolutions reasonably, indicating that the model has the potential to model the processes related to the snow cover evolution. It is also found that the different parameterization schemes of the snowfall density and snow water holding capacity have significant effects on the simulation of snow cover. The estimation of snowfall density mainly impacts the simulated snow depth, and the underestimation (overestimation) of the snowfall density increases (decreases) the snow depth simulated significantly but with little effect on the simulated snow water equivalent (SWE). The parameterization of the snow water holding capacity plays a crucial role in the evolution of snow cover, especially in the ablation of snow cover. Larger snow water holding capacity usually leads to larger snow density and heat capacity by storing more liquid water in the snow layer, and makes the temperature of snow cover and the snow ablation vary more slowly. To a smaller snow water holding capacity, contrary is the case. The results also show that the physical processes related to the snow cover variation are different, which are dependent on the vegetation existed. Vegetation plays an important role in the evolution of soil-snow system by changing the energy balance at the snow-soil surface. The existence of vegetation is favorable to the maintenance of snow cover and delays the increase of underlying soil temperature.     

积雪季节变化特征的数值模拟及其敏感性试验

文中利用综合陆面模式 (ComprehensiveLandSurfaceModel,CLSM )对法国ColdePorte 1 993/ 1 994 ,1 994 / 1 995年及BOREASSSA OJP 1 994 / 1 995年积雪个例进行了模拟试验 ,通过模拟结果与观测资料的对比 ,检验了CLSM对积雪变化特征的模拟能力 ,并通过敏感性试验探讨了降雪密度、积雪持水量等积雪参数化方案及植被对积雪模拟可能产生的影响。结果表明 :(1 )CLSM能够准确地模拟出积雪的变化过程 ,对积雪的演变特征作出了合理的描述 ;(2 )降雪密度、积雪持水量参数化方案对积雪模拟结果均具有一定的影响 :降雪密度参数化主要对积雪深度的模拟产生影响 ;而积雪持水量参数化方案对积雪的演变过程 ,尤其是积雪的消融 ,具有重要的作用 ;(3)有、无植被存在的情况下 ,积雪 土壤系统的变化过程存在显著的差别 ,植被通过改变积雪 /土壤表面的能量平衡 ,对积雪及土壤的变化过程产生重要影响 :植被的存在有利于积雪的维持 ,使得积雪融化进程推迟 ,冻结土壤的增温明显偏慢     

Sensitivity Study of the South China Sea Summer Monsoon in 1998 to Different Cumulus Parameterization Schemes

In this study, the improved high-resolution regional climate model of the China National Climate Center （RegCM_NCC） is used to examine the sensitivity of the simulated circulation and rainfall during the South China Sea summer monsoon （SCSSM） period during 1998 in an effort to compare to other cumulus param- eterization schemes. The investigation has indicated that the model is capable of simulating the seasonal march of the SCSSM and that the results were very sensitive to the choice of cumulus parameterization schemes. It seems that the Kuo cumulus parameterization scheme simulates the process of the SCSSM onset reasonably well, which can reproduce the onset timing and dramatic changes before and after the onset, especially the upper- and lower-level wind-fields. However, there are still some discrepancies between the simulations and observations. For example, the model can not completely simulate the intensity of the rainfall or the location of the western Pacific subtropical high as well as the feature of the rapid northward propagation of seasonal rain belt.     

AN IMPROVED LAND-SURFACE PROCESS MODEL AND ITS SIMULATION EXPERIMENT——PART Ⅰ:LAND-SURFACE PROCESS MODEL AND ITS“OFF-LINE”TESTS AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSES

Based on the existing land-surface schemes and models,an improved Land-surface Process Model(LPM-ZD)has been developed.It has the following major characteristics:(1)The combination of physical equations and empirical analytical formulae are used to construct the governing equations of soil temperature and moisture.Higher resolution of model level and physical equations are adopted for the upper soil layers,and for the lower soil layers,lower resolution of model level is adopted and empirical analytical formulae are used.(2)In land surface hydrological process,the sub-grid distribution of rainfall and its effects are taken into account.(3)A simple snow cover submodel has been used,which includes effects of snow cover on soil thermodynamics and hydrology,as well as albedo.By use of this model and three groups of point observation data,a series of "off-line" tests have been carried out.The simulation results indicate that land-surface process model has good performance and can well simulate diurnal and seasonal variation of land surface processes for many kinds of land surface covers(forest,grass,crops and desert) in different climate zone.The results simulated by the model are consistent with the observations.Later,by use of one group of observation data and the model,a series of sensitivity experiments have been done.It is shown that the model is much sensitive to some parameters,such as initial soil moisture,vegetation physical parameters as well as the proportion of the grid covered with rain.Therefore it is much important for land-surface process model to define these parameters as accurately as possible.     

南海夏季风爆发的数值模拟

利用高分辨率的区域气候模式 (RegCM_NCC) 对南海夏季风爆发进行模拟研究。研究表明:该模式对积云对流参数化方案的选择十分敏感, 其中以Kuo积云参数化方案为最好, 可以比较成功地模拟出南海夏季风的爆发时间、爆发前后高、低层风场的剧烈变化以及季风与季风雨带的向北推进。然而该方案对于雨量和副热带高压位置的模拟, 与观测相比尚存在一定的偏差, 主要表现为副热带高压位置模拟偏北、偏东; 南海地区的降水量模拟偏少、降水范围偏小。此外, 采用4种参数化方案 (Kuo, Grell, MFS, Betts-Miller) 集成的结果在某种程度上要优于单个方案的结果, 这种改善主要体现在对南海地区季风爆发后降水的模拟上。     

A new snow parameterization for the Météo-France climate model

Both observational studies and numerical experiments demonstrate the sensitivity of the atmosphere to variations in the extent and mass of snow cover. There is therefore a need for simple but realistic snow parameterizations in forecast and climate models. This study describes a new physically-based snow hydrology for use in the Météo-France climate model, together with the ISBA land-surface scheme. A restricted number of parameters has been added, while preserving a single surface energy budget. The ageing process of the snow pack has been introduced through prognostic equations for snow density and snow albedo. Snowmelt computation has been modified over partially snow-covered and vegetated areas. The new scheme has been validated against field measurements in stand-alone simulations forced by observed meteorological conditions. The results show a strong improvement in the model's performance, thereby suggesting that a simple one-layer snow model is able to reproduce the main physical mechanisms governing the snow pack evolution. Part II of the present study will concern the validation in a 3-D experiment within the Météo-France climate model.