陆面过程模式中积雪过程的参数化及初步试验

为了用气候模式研究冰雪圈变化的气候效应，我们在已经发展的土壤－植被－大气模式基础上，考虑积雪改变表水文和反照率的参数化，建立了包含雪盖问题的陆面过程模式。利用中国西北黑河地区的ＨＥＩＦＥ实测气象和辐射资料，检验了模式对大气降雨和降雪的响应，结果表明，该模式描写的各种物理过程合理，一些可观测要素（如地面温度和地表净辐射通量）的演变特征与实况相当一致。     

基于加密观测的一次极端雨雪过程积雪特征分析

利用降水现象仪、地面自动站、人工加密积雪深度逐时观测资料及NCEP/NCAR 1°×1°再分析资料,对山东2020年1月5-7日罕见雨雪过程的积雪特征及温度影响机制进行了分析。结果表明:(1)降水量突破同期历史极值导致此次雨雪过程成为极端天气事件,地面影响系统为江淮气旋,冷平流较弱,积雪深度是预报难点。(2)整个过程全省各站的平均降雪含水比为0.46 cm·mm~(-1),低于过去20年间的江淮气旋暴雪过程。(3)积雪深度与高空温度、相对湿度和垂直速度的配置有关,在最大上升运动与90%以上相对湿度的叠置层次内,如果环境温度有利于树枝状冰晶增长则积雪深度和降雪含水比大,而环境温度适合空心柱状冰晶增长的则积雪深度小;云下温度高于0℃使得积雪深度减小。(4)积雪深度与近地面温度的关系表现为:气温低于0.5℃可形成有量积雪;0 cm地温对积雪的影响表现在积雪产生之前,降至0.4℃以下可形成有量积雪;雪面温度在产生积雪前后的2 h内维持在0℃左右,其他时段变化与气温类似。(5)降雪含水比基本上随着气温的升高而减小,在0.5 cm·mm~(-1)以上时一般降雪期间气温低于0.4℃。该个例揭示了积雪深度和降雪含水比的预报需要综合考虑高低空气象条件。     

一次江淮气旋暴雪的积雪特征及气象影响因子分析

利用自动站、人工加密观测及常规观测资料,通过对2017年2月21—22日一次江淮气旋暴雪过程积雪特征的分析,揭示了近地面气象要素对积雪深度的复杂影响。结果表明:(1)江淮气旋系统特有的空间结构导致山东南、北地区的降雪量和积雪深度不均衡分布。(2)积雪深度具有时效性,在降雪结束时达到峰值,因温度的变化导致峰值不一定维持到次日08时。(3)积雪深度是近地面多气象要素共同作用的结果,降水相态、降雪量、降雪强度、气温、地温和风速均有影响。主要表现为:雨夹雪在转为纯雪之前可产生不超过1 cm的积雪,如果不转雪则不会产生有量积雪;各地降雪含水比差异较大,全省平均为0. 5 cm·mm~(-1),低于全国平均值;在降雪不融化的情况下,降雪量、降雪强度越大则积雪越深,降雪强度大是气温和地温都高于0℃时产生积雪的必要条件;地温和气温越低对积雪形成越有利,积雪开始产生时的地温最高阈值多在0℃左右,地温先突降后缓升是积雪产生前后的共性特征,积雪产生后1～2 h内地温略有上升并逐渐趋于稳定;积雪产生时气温一般低于0℃,气温高于0℃时大部分降雪融化;有利于产生积雪的平均风力多不超过2级,极大风则在3～4级以下。     

积雪覆盖对高寒草甸土壤温湿及地表能量收支的影响

利用青海玛沁微气象观测站降雪过程的观测数据,探讨了积雪覆盖对土壤温度,土壤体积含水量、土壤热通量及地表能量交换的影响。结果表明:积雪覆盖对浅层土壤温度的影响较为显著,而对深层土壤温度的影响十分微弱。地表有积雪覆盖时,浅层土壤温度日平均值升高,日变化幅度减小,日最低值升高,温度梯度绝对值减小。土壤完全冻结状态下土壤体积含水量几乎不受积雪覆盖影响,土壤融化状态下积雪覆盖会导致浅层土壤体积含水量日变化幅度减小,而对深层土壤体积含水量没有影响。积雪覆盖会减小浅层土壤热通量的日变化幅度。在总辐射相同的晴天条件下,当地表有积雪覆盖时,由于积雪的高反照率导致向上短波辐射增加,净辐射减小,同时感热通量减小而潜热通量增加,感热占比(H/Rn)下降,潜热占比(LE/Rn)升高。     

黄河源积雪期土壤温湿及冻融特征分析与模拟

利用2017~2018年黄河源地区野外观测站数据，对黄河源区两个积雪期内土壤温湿及冻融特征进行了分析，并与CLM4.5模式模拟的积雪期土壤温、湿度及辐射分量进行了对比，结果表明:CLM4.5能很好地模拟出整个积雪期土壤温度的变化趋势；对不同土壤层在不同冻结阶段土壤含水量的模拟有所差异:在完全冻结阶段，对5cm土壤层含水量模拟偏高，而80cm偏低，对10~40cm土壤层含水量的模拟偏差较小；由于降雪及土壤冻融过程主要发生在积雪期，积雪反照率使得净辐射模拟在降雪时段偏差较无降雪时段略大。      

青海省甘德两次降雪过程的微气象特征分析

利用青海省甘德两次降雪过程的微气象观测数据,探讨了两场降雪过程雪深、雪密度、雪中含冰量、雪中含水量和雪面温度的变化情况,分析了地表反照率与雪密度、雪中含冰量及雪中含水量的关系,结合降雪过程近地面温、湿、风廓线特征分析了积雪对近地面温、湿、风梯度的影响。结果表明:积雪覆盖会导致地表反照率显著增加,降雪过后正午时地表反照率可高达0.8～0.9。随着积雪的消融,地表反照率逐渐减小;积雪反照率与雪密度和雪中含冰量呈正相关,与雪中含水量呈负相关;地表积雪覆盖会导致近地面温度梯度绝对值减小,相对湿度梯度绝对值在凌晨减小、午后增大,地表积雪覆盖对近地面风速梯度变化并无特定的影响。     

黄河源区降雪对不同冻融阶段土壤温湿变化的影响北大核心CSCD

利用2013年10月1日至2014年5月31日黄河源区鄂陵湖流域的土壤温度资料首先划分土壤不同冻融阶段,然后在每个阶段各选取一次降雪过程,分析了降雪对土壤温湿变化的影响。结果表明:在土壤冻结阶段,雪后晴天(有雪覆盖)土壤净输出的热量减少,5 cm和10 cm土壤日最低温度明显升高,20 cm土壤日最低温度升至0℃以上,导致20 cm土壤达到完全冻结的时间延长;在土壤消融阶段,降雪当天土壤净输入的热量减少,5 cm和10 cm土壤日最高温度突降至0℃以下,导致5 cm和10cm土壤达到完全消融的时间增加。在以上两个阶段的降雪过程中,积雪不仅可通过自身的消融增加浅层土壤湿度,还可通过改变浅层土壤温度间接影响浅层土壤湿度,而在土壤完全冻结阶段,积雪对土壤温度虽有影响,但对土壤湿度的直接和间接影响都较小。在整个土壤冻融阶段,与由土壤冻结和消融引起的土壤湿度变化相比,降雪引起的土壤湿度变化较小。     

陆面模式CLSM的设计及性能检验II.模式检验

利用BOREAS,HEIFE,ARME,GAME-TIPEX等大量的陆面外场观测资料,针对不同类型的陆面过程,对所发展的陆面模式CLSM的性能进行检验.模拟结果与观测资料的对比分析表明:一方面,CLSM能够对积雪变化、干旱/半干旱地区的水热交换等特殊的陆面过程进行合理的描述;另一方面,CLSM对热带雨林地区的植被-大气相互作用、高原地气交换过程同样具有很强的模拟能力.CLSM解决了陆面模式对上述特殊下垫面描述能力有限的实际问题,保证了对特殊下垫面进行合理描述的同时,又保证了对其他不同陆面状况的模拟能力.CLSM改善了陆面模式对全球范围内不同下垫面条件下的陆面过程及地-气交换过程的模拟能力.     

黄河源区降雪对不同冻融阶段土壤温湿变化的影响

利用2013年10月1日至2014年5月31日黄河源区鄂陵湖流域的土壤温度资料首先划分土壤不同冻融阶段,然后在每个阶段各选取一次降雪过程,分析了降雪对土壤温湿变化的影响。结果表明:在土壤冻结阶段,雪后晴天(有雪覆盖)土壤净输出的热量减少,5 cm和10 cm土壤日最低温度明显升高,20 cm土壤日最低温度升至0℃以上,导致20 cm土壤达到完全冻结的时间延长;在土壤消融阶段,降雪当天土壤净输入的热量减少,5 cm和10 cm土壤日最高温度突降至0℃以下,导致5 cm和10cm土壤达到完全消融的时间增加。在以上两个阶段的降雪过程中,积雪不仅可通过自身的消融增加浅层土壤湿度,还可通过改变浅层土壤温度间接影响浅层土壤湿度,而在土壤完全冻结阶段,积雪对土壤温度虽有影响,但对土壤湿度的直接和间接影响都较小。在整个土壤冻融阶段,与由土壤冻结和消融引起的土壤湿度变化相比,降雪引起的土壤湿度变化较小。     

陆面模式CLM4.5对青藏高原高寒草甸地表能量交换模拟性能的评估

利用中国科学院那曲高寒气候环境观测研究站2013年9月1日至2014年8月31日一个完整年的观测资料,对陆面过程模式CLM4.5在青藏高原(下称高原)高寒草甸下垫面地表能量交换的模拟性能进行了评估。模拟结果表明,CLM4.5能够较好的模拟高原春季、夏季和秋季非冻结期地面长波、反射辐射和地表净辐射、感热和潜热通量以及地表土壤热通量等的季节变化和日循环特征。但对冬季冻结期地表温度的模拟偏低,导致模拟与观测的感热反相,对地面反射辐射模拟偏大。截断冬季降水的敏感性试验进一步指出,模式冬季反射辐射偏大主要是由于积雪引起的地表反照率偏高造成,进而造成地表温度以及感热通量的模拟偏低。因此,高原积雪参数化方案以及与积雪相关的反照率参数化方案还需进一步改进和完善。     

Numerical Simulation of the Evolution of Snow Cover and Its Sensitivity Experiments

By using Comprehensive Land Surface Model (CLSM), three snow cases, i.e., France Col de Porte 1993/1994, 1994/1995 and BOREAS SSA-OJP 1994/1995, were simulated. The simulated results were compared with the observations to examine the capability of the model to describe the evolutions of snow cover under two different land cover conditions. Several sensitivity experiments were performed to investigate the effects of the parameterization schemes of some snow cover internal processes and vegetation on the model results. Results suggest that the CLSM simulates the basic processes of snow cover accurately and describes the features of snow cover evolutions reasonably, indicating that the model has the potential to model the processes related to the snow cover evolution. It is also found that the different parameterization schemes of the snowfall density and snow water holding capacity have significant effects on the simulation of snow cover. The estimation of snowfall density mainly impacts the simulated snow depth, and the underestimation (overestimation) of the snowfall density increases (decreases) the snow depth simulated significantly but with little effect on the simulated snow water equivalent (SWE). The parameterization of the snow water holding capacity plays a crucial role in the evolution of snow cover, especially in the ablation of snow cover. Larger snow water holding capacity usually leads to larger snow density and heat capacity by storing more liquid water in the snow layer, and makes the temperature of snow cover and the snow ablation vary more slowly. To a smaller snow water holding capacity, contrary is the case. The results also show that the physical processes related to the snow cover variation are different, which are dependent on the vegetation existed. Vegetation plays an important role in the evolution of soil-snow system by changing the energy balance at the snow-soil surface. The existence of vegetation is favorable to the maintenance of snow cover and delays the increase of underlying soil temperature.     

用于气候研究的雪盖模型参数化方案敏感性研究

为了得到一个适用于气候研究简化的季节性雪盖模式最佳方案,必须对雪盖内部的重要物理过程、其与上大气相互作用、相应模型的参数化方案和有关的参数选取以及模型的分层结构进行深入研究.利用作者的雪盖模型(SAST),对其中的一些关键性过程的有关参数化方案(如压实、相变、融化雪水流动及分层方案考虑等)及关键的参数(如雪面反照率、有效热传导系数及持水能力等)进行了分析和敏感性试验,得到若干有意义的结论,为雪盖模式改进提供有用的结论.     

The Cloud Processes of a Simulated Moderate Snowfall Event in North China

The understanding of the cloud processes of snowfall is essential to the artificial enhancement of snow and the numerical simulation of snowfall. The mesoscale model MM5 is used to simulate a moderate snowfall event in North China that occurred during 20–21 December 2002. Thirteen experiments are performed to test the sensitivity of the simulation to the cloud physics with different cumulus parameterization schemes and different options for the Goddard cloud microphysics parameterization schemes. It is shown that the cumulus parameterization scheme has little to do with the simulation result. The results also show that there are only four classes of water substances, namely the cloud water, cloud ice, snow, and vapor, in the simulation of the moderate snowfall event. The analysis of the cloud microphysics budgets in the explicit experiment shows that the condensation of supersaturated vapor, the depositional growth of cloud ice, the initiation of cloud ice, the accretion of cloud ice by snow, the accretion of cloud water by snow, the deposition growth of snow, and the Bergeron process of cloud ice are the dominant cloud microphysical processes in the simulation. The accretion of cloud water by snow and the deposition growth of the snow are equally important in the development of the snow.     

有关雪盖模型内部及界面过程的参数化方案的敏感试验

In order to develop a seasonal snow model of land surface process as accurately as possible for climatic study, it is necessary to fully understand the effects of important snow internal processes and interaction with air and to get an insight into influence of several relevant parameterization schemes with parameters＇ uncertainty to some degree. Using the snow model (SAST) developed by first author and other one and some useful field observation data, this paper has conducted a series of sensitivity studies on the parameterization schemes. They are relative to compaction process, snow thermal conduction, methodology of layering snow pack and to key parameters such as snow albedo, water holding capacity. Then, based on the results from the sensitivity studies, some useful conclusions for snow cover model improvement are ob tained from the analysis of the results.     

云微物理参数化对华北降雪影响的数值模拟

对发生在华北地区的一次降雪过程进行了中尺度数值模拟。结果表明,高纬强冷空气南下和低纬倒槽的水汽输送是造成这次长时间降雪过程的主要原因。采用混合方案的中尺度数值模拟表明,这次降雪天气不是对流云造成的,而是稳定性的非对流云降雪。敏感性试验也表明,采用其他积云参数化方案对模拟的降雪量基本没有影响。控制试验模拟的24h降雪量与实际观测比较吻合。模拟结果表明,当采用Dudhia简单冰相方案时,会有过多的云冰、过冷却水及雪;当采用Reisner 1混合相方案时,会有过多的云冰和雪;修改的各个Reisner 2方案对此次降雪的预报改进不大,但各个Reisner 2方案的敏感性试验中云冰混合比、过冷却水混合比和雪混合比稍微有差异。     

Treatment of frozen soil and snow cover in the land surface model SEWAB

Summary  The land surface model SEWAB (Surface Energy and Water Balance) is designed to be coupled to both, atmospheric and hydrological models. Its application in mid and high latitudes requires the inclusion of freezing and thawing processes within the soil and the accumulation and ablation of a snow cover. These winter processes are parameterised with a minimum number of empirical formulations in order to assure reasonable computation times for an application in climate and sensitivity studies yet accounting for all important processes. Meteorological forcing data and measurements of snow depth, soil temperature and liquid soil water content at two locations in the mid-west of North America are used to test the model. Generally the simulated snow depth matches the measurements, remaining differences in snow depth can be explained by uncertainties in snow density, blowing snow and errors in precipitation measurements. The simulated soil temperature and liquid soil water content compare well with the measurements, showing the isolating effect of the snow cover. Received August 25, 2000 Revised January 19, 2001     

Numerical comparison study of cloud microphysical parameterization schemes for a moderate snowfall event in North China

Summary A moderate snowfall event in North China is simulated using the high-resolution mesoscale model MM5. A fourfold-nest experiment, with a minimum horizontal grid size of 2 km, is run. In order to study the cloud microphysics processes associated with the snowfall, two experiments were conducted in two inner domains, one using the Goddard scheme (Goddard experiment), and the other using the Reisner scheme (Reisner experiment). The analysis focused on the comparison of the cloud microphysics processes which occurred in the experiments. It is shown that there is no implicit precipitation of cumulus parameterization in the domain of grid scale 18 km. The snowfall distribution patterns in the experiments are slightly different, but the microphysical characteristics and processes may have considerable differences between the two experiments: (1) The water substances in the cloud have cloud water, cloud ice and snow, but no rainwater and graupel in the Goddard experiment. However, the water substances in the cloud have cloud ice, snow, and graupel, but no cloud water and rainwater in the Reisner experiment. (2) The cloud ice mixing ratios in the Goddard experiment are larger than those in the Reisner experiment. (3) In the Goddard experiment, the dominant cloud microphysical processes include the growth of cloud water by the condensation of supersaturated vapor, the depositional growth of cloud ice, the initiation of cloud ice, the accretion of cloud ice by snow, the accretion of cloud water by snow, the deposition growth of snow and the Bergeron process of cloud ice. In the Reisner experiment, the dominant cloud microphysical processes include the depositional growth of cloud ice, the conversion of cloud ice to snow, the deposition of snow, and the deposition growth of graupel. (4) There is only snowfall in the Goddard experiment. Meanwhile, there is ice fall, snow fall, and graupel in the Reisner experiment. But the ice fall and graupel in the Reisner experiment is very slight and can be ignored.     

冬半年欧亚雪盖变化对东亚环流的影响

对１９７３～１９９４年期间欧亚雪盖和东亚５００ｈＰａ高度距平资料进行旋转扩展主成分分析,研究了冬半年欧亚雪盖异常与后期夏半年东亚环流分布连续演变的关系及其可能机制。结果表明前期秋冬春季欧洲、中亚和东亚中高纬雪盖异常不同的动态变化激发出具有不同持续性的东亚低频流型,而夏半年东亚副热带环流纬向扩展型演变与前期冬半年欧亚雪盖异常无关。     

Rapid vegetation responses and feedbacks amplify climate model response to snow cover changes

We investigate the response of a climate system model to two different methods for estimating snow cover fraction. In the control case, snow cover fraction changes gradually with snow depth; in the alternative scenarios (one with prescribed vegetation and one with dynamic vegetation), snow cover fraction initially increases with snow depth almost twice as fast as the control method. In cases where the vegetation was fixed (prescribed), the choice of snow cover parameterization resulted in a limited model response. Increased albedo associated with the high snow caused some moderate localized cooling (3–5°C), mostly at very high latitudes (>70°N) and during the spring season. During the other seasons, however, the cooling was not very extensive. With dynamic vegetation the change is much more dramatic. The initial increases in snow cover fraction with the new parameterization lead to a large-scale southward retreat of boreal vegetation, widespread cooling, and persistent snow cover over much of the boreal region during the boreal summer. Large cold anomalies of up to 15°C cover much of northern Eurasia and North America and the cooling is geographically extensive in the northern hemisphere extratropics, especially during the spring and summer seasons. This study demonstrates the potential for dynamic vegetation within climate models to be quite sensitive to modest forcing. This highlights the importance of dynamic vegetation, both as an amplifier of feedbacks in the climate system and as an essential consideration when implementing adjustments to existing model parameters and algorithms.