Controlled-Source Electromagnetic Approaches for Hydrocarbon Exploration and Monitoring on Land

Electromagnetic methods that utilize controlled sources have been applied for natural resource exploration for more than a century. Nevertheless, concomitant with the recent adoption of marine controlled-source electromagnetics (CSEM) by the hydrocarbon industry, the overall usefulness of CSEM methods on land has been questioned within the industry. Truly, there are few published examples of land CSEM surveys carried out completely analogously to the current marine CSEM standard approach of towing a bipole source across an array of stationary receivers, continuously transmitting a low-frequency signal and interpreting the data in the frequency domain. Rather, different sensitivity properties of different exploration targets in diverse geological settings, gradual advances in theoretical understanding, acquisition and computer technology, and different schools in different parts of the world have resulted in a sometimes confusing multitude of land-based controlled-source EM surveying approaches. Here, I aim to review previous and present-day approaches, and provide reasoning for their diversity. I focus on surface-based techniques while excluding airborne EM and well logging and on applications for hydrocarbon exploration. Attempts at the very demanding task of using onshore controlled-source EM for reservoir monitoring are shown, and the possible future potential of EM monitoring is discussed.