Geophysical investigation of tumuli by means of surface 3D Electrical Resistivity Tomography

Tumuli are artificially erected small hills that cover monumental tombs or graves. In this work, the surface three-dimensional (3D) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) method, composed of dense parallel two-dimensional (2D) tomographies, was used to investigate the properties of the tumuli filling material and to resolve buried archaeological structures inside the tumuli.The effectiveness of the method was investigated by numerical modeling and through 3D inversion of synthetic apparent resistivity data. A resistivity model that simulates the inhomogeneous tumulus material and the tombs that are buried inside the tumulus was assumed. The Dipole–Dipole (DD), Pole–Dipole (PD), Pole–Pole (PP), Gradient (GRAD), Midpoint-Potential-Referred (MPR) and Schlumberger Reciprocal (SCR) arrays, which are suitable for multichannel resistivity instruments, were tested. The tumulus topography (pyramid or capsized cup) was incorporated into the inversion procedure through a distorted finite element mesh. The inversion procedure was based on a smoothness constrained Gauss–Newton algorithm in which the Active Constraint Balancing (ACB) method was also applied in order to enhance the least-squares resolving power and stability.Synthetic modeling showed that the different tumulus layers and the horizontal contact of the artificial tumulus material with the natural background soil were reconstructed by all of the tested electrode arrays. Generally, PD and the GRAD arrays comprise the optimum choices to investigate the subsurface properties of a tumulus and locate buried tombs. The MPR model was inferior to the GRAD model, while the DD, PP and SCR models had the poorest resolution. It was also shown that the inversion models are practically independent from the survey direction and the topography shape of the tumulus.The real field data collected employing the PD array along a small tumulus from the archaeological site of Vergina in northern Greece enhanced the synthetic modeling results. The inversion model outlined a number of archaeological structures that exhibit a high possibility to correlate with graves. Overall, this work signifies that the surface 3D ERT method can provide a valuable tool in the non-destructive archaeological exploration of tumuli.