The impact of tectonic deformation upon coal seams in the South Wales coalfield, UK

Observations on the nature and appearance of coal seams, which were deformed during the late Carboniferous Variscan orogeny, have been made over several years within a number of opencast coal sites located across the South Wales coalfield. The deformation of coal seams was dominated by brittle failure and subsequent movement along fracture planes. Examination of hand specimens and smaller-scale samples using a scanning electron microscope reveals the presence of two distinct types of small-scale, tectonic fracture markings within deformed coals. Striated fracture surfaces with prominent ridges and grooves can bear a superficial resemblance to shatter cones in appearance but are unique to coal in their tectonic setting and appear to have formed by static shear failure, whereas strongly polished fracture surfaces result from movement across fracture planes. Deformed coal seams are also affected by distinctive, large-scale, tectonic fracture sets. The extent of fracturing within coal seams can be assessed using different techniques including measuring fracture frequency directly, performing various strength and hardness tests, making relatively simple subjective assessments on the appearance of the coal or monitoring the size distribution of the coal product. By applying some of these methods within working opencast sites, it can be shown that large amounts of abnormally fractured coal were formed along coal-based thrust flats or detachments but that the distribution of fractured coal along detached seams is rarely homogeneous. Enhanced fracturing often occurred in association with the localised thickening of seams along small-scale thrusts or within coal duplexes. Variable seam thicknesses and pockets of structurally thickened coal are seen as the most efficient means by which the presence and location of significant amounts of fractured coal can be predicted from borehole evidence during prospecting.