Quantitative evaluation of climatic variability and risks for wheat yield in India

This study comprises (1) an analysis of recent climate trends at two sites in north-west India (Ludhiana in Punjab and Delhi) and (2) an impact and risk assessment for wheat yields associated with climatic variability. North-west Indian agriculture is dominated by rice-wheat rotation in which the wheat season (‘rabi’, November to March) is characterized by predominantly dry conditions—superimposed by very high inter-annual variability of rainfall (17 to 260 mm in Ludhiana and <1 to 155 mm in Delhi). While rainfall remained without discernable trend over the last three decades, minimum and average temperatures showed increasing trends of 0.06 and 0.03°C year^???1, respectively, at Ludhiana. The site in (metropolitan) Delhi was apparently influenced by city-effects, which was noticeable from the decrease in solar radiation of 0.09 MJ m^???2 day^???1 year^???1. The CERES-wheat model was used to calculate yields of rainfed wheat that were at both locations highly correlated with seasonal rainfall. An assessment framework was developed to quantify yield impacts due to rainfall variability in three steps: (1) data from different years were aggregated into four classes, i.e., years with scarce, low, moderate, and high rainfall, (2) yield records of each rainfall class were ranked according to yield to facilitate (3) a comparison of yields with identical rank, i.e. among the best yield of each class, the second-best, etc. The class with moderate rainfall was taken as baseline yield to compute yield impacts of other rainfall scenarios. Years with scarce rainfall resulted in only 34% (Ludhiana) and 35% (Delhi) of the baseline yield. The yields in years with low rainfall accounted for 61% (Delhi) and 49% (Ludhiana) of the baseline yields. In Ludhiana, high rainfall years resulted in 200% yield as compared to the baseline yield, whereas they reached only 105% in Delhi. Low-intensity (1× and 3×) irrigation decreased the relative yield losses, but entailed a higher vulnerability in terms of absolute yield losses. Only high-intensity (4×) irrigation buffered wheat yields against adverse rainfall years. Early sowing was beneficial for wheat yields under all rainfall scenarios. The framework could be a valuable decision-support tool at the farm level where seasonal rainfall variability is high.