Continental drift and a theory of convection

Early geologists considered that the Earth's surface is rigid and unchanging. They assumed that the whole Earth is static, except for enough sub-surface contraction to build mountains. After seismology developed, most geophysicists agreed. A few scientists, notably Wegener, favoured a more mobile Earth. About 1965 fresh evidence showed that both theories were too simple. This evidence explained why neither theory had been able to relate the whole Earth's behaviour to laws of physics. Hence different aspects of geology had only been solved separately which had fragmented Earth science. This paper proposes a compromise. It is that the rigid lithosphere fractures according to Navier's law of brittle failure which explains the properties and provides methods for classifying faults, plate boundaries and mountains and that the ductile mantle convects by laws of fluid flow in patterns partly controlled by lithospheric fractures. These dual, interacting influences explain tectonic behaviour. The pattern of currents is hidden. At any one time upwelling beneath continents only affects a few limited areas; today some are in southwestern United States, Central Asia, Botswana, Antarctica and rifts in East Africa, Europe and Siberia. Nevertheless recognition of upwelling currents may revolutionize geology because their cumulative effects have been great and neglected.