Cleavage-fold relationships and their implications for transected folds: an example from southwest Virginia,U.S.A.

A non-coaxial deformation involving pre-folding initiation of cleavage perpendicular to bedding is proposed to explain non-axial planar cleavage associated with mesoscopic folds in part of the Appalachian foreland thrust-belt of southwest Virginia. Folds are gently plunging, asymmetric, upright to slightly inclined, sinusoidal forms with non-axial fanning cleavage. They show extreme local variations in type and degree of transection and the consistency of transection direction. These relations are further complicated by hinge migration.Cleavage-fan angles, bedding-cleavage angles and δ transection values appear influenced by fold tightness, and in part by fold flattening strain. Fold flattening increments are considered simultaneous with folding. Axial surface traces, and not cleavage traces, coincide with the principal extension direction in fold profiles. Geometric modelling of cleavage fanning and bedding-cleavage angle variations for various theoretical folding modes suggest that folding in limestone and sandstone layers was by tangential longitudinal strain. Significant shape modification and change in bedding-cleavage relations occurred after limb dips of 40 and 50° were attained in limestone and sandstone respectively. Mud-rock class 1C folds with convergent cleavage fans show features transitional between buckling and flexural flow. Initiation of ‘cleavage’ fabrics during layer-parallel shortening prior to significant folding may be important for cleavage evolution in some deformed rocks.