Iron oxide incrustations in wells. Part 1: genesis,mineralogy and geochemistry

The formation of incrustations seriously affects the performance of wells, piezometers and drains. Their economic relevance must not be underestimated. Oxides of Fe(III) represent the most common incrustation type. Their formation via oxidation of dissolved Fe(II) is enhanced at zones of elevated flow velocities. The first, “amorphous” precipitates (ferrihydrite) are thermodynamically unstable and re-crystallise with time to form stable phases, mainly goethite (“ageing”). This transformation involves a decrease of surface area and a simultaneous decrease in reactivity and explains why older incrustations are harder to remove by chemical treatment. During formation, Fe oxide incrustations take up large amounts of trace elements from groundwater. Anions such as phosphate and arsenate dominate over cations. Anions are surface-bound and are mostly expelled with the decrease of surface area during ageing. Cations are probably bound in the crystal structure rather than as sorbed surface species. Only those with large ionic radius are mostly not expelled during ageing. Trace element concentrations influence the rate of transformation and the solubility of Fe oxide incrustations.