The significance of surface complexation reactions in hydrologic systems: a geochemist's perspective

Complexation reactions at the mineral–water interface affect the transport and transformation of metals and organic contaminants, nutrient availability in soils, formation of ore deposits, acidification of watersheds and the global cycling of elements. Such reactions can be understood by quantifying speciation reactions in homogeneous aqueous solutions, characterizing reactive sites at mineral surfaces and developing models of the interactions between aqueous species at solid surfaces. In this paper, the application of thermodynamic principles to quantify aqueous complexation reactions is described. This is followed by a brief overview of a few of the methods that have been used to characterize reactive sites on mineral surfaces. Next, the application of empirical and semi-empirical models of adsorption at the mineral–water interface, including distribution coefficients, simple ion exchange models, and Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms is discussed. Emphasis is placed on the limitations of such models in providing an adequate representation of adsorption in hydrological systems. These limitations arise because isotherms do not account for the structure of adsorbed species, nor do they account for the development of surface charge with adsorption. This is contrasted with more sophisticated models of adsorption, termed ‘surface complexation models’, which include the constant capacitance model, the diffuse layer model, the triple layer model and the MUSIC model. In these models, speciation reactions between surface functional groups and dissolved species control the variable surface charge build-up and the specific adsorption properties of minerals in aqueous solutions. Next, the influence of mineral surface speciation on the reactivity of adsorbed species and on far from equilibrium dissolution rates of minerals is discussed. Finally, the applicability of microscopic models of surface complexation to field-scale systems is explored and the need to integrate sophisticated surface chemical and hydrological modeling approaches is stressed.