Statistics from Lagrangian observations

We review statistical analyses of Lagrangian data from the ocean. These can be grouped into studies involving single particles and those with pairs or groups of particles. Single particle studies are the most common. The prevalent analysis involves binning velocities geographically to estimate the Eulerian means and lateral diffusivities. However single particle statistics have also been used to study Rossby wave propagation, the influence of bottom topography and eddy heat fluxes. Other studies have used stochastic models to simulate dispersion, calculated Lagrangian frequency spectra and examined the relation between Lagrangian and Eulerian integral scales. Studies involving pairs of particles are fewer, and the results are not well-established yet. There are indications that pair separations grow exponentially in time below the deformation radius, as is also the case in the stratosphere. The behavior at larger scales is less clear, indicating either a turbulent cascade or dispersion by the sheared large-scale circulation. In addition, three or more particles can be used to measure relative vorticity and divergence.