Deglaciation of the younger dryas or Loch Lomond Stadial ice-field in the northern Highlands,Scotland

When viewed from the air, Scottish ‘hummocky moraine’ can be resolved into a series of linear ridges that resemble those found at the margins of actively retreating glaciers today. Recent work has supported the interpretation of these linear ridges as ice-marginal landforms and the authors believe that the majority of ‘hummocky moraine’ deposits can be interpreted in this way. Consequently the pattern of deglaciation can be established fairly precisely from the pattern of linear ridges. This approach is applied to the landforms of the northern part of the Loch Lomond Stadial ice-field in order to reconstruct the regional pattern of deglaciation. This leads to important inferences about the significance of topographic control during deglaciation and more importantly it provides fresh insight into the environment of the British Isles during the Loch Lomond Stadial.     

Papua New Guinea Highlands: palaeomagnetic constraints on terrane tectonics

Oblique convergence since the Early Cenozoic between the northward-moving Australian plate, westward-moving Pacific plate and almost stationary Eurasian plate has created a world-ranking tectonic zone in the eastern Indonesia–New Guinea–Southwest Pacific region (Tonga–Sulawesi megashear) that is notorious for its complex mix of tectonic styles and terrane juxtapositions. Unlike an ancient analog—the Mesozoic–Cenozoic Cordillera of North America—palaeomagnetic constraints on terrane motions in the zone are few. To improve the framework of quantitative control on such motions and therefore our understanding of the development of the zone, results of a palaeomagnetic study in the Highlands region of Papua New Guinea (PNG), in the southern part of the New Guinea Orogen, are reported. The study yields new insights into terrane tectonics along the Australian craton's active northern margin and confirms the complexity of block rotations to be expected at the local scale in tectonically intricate zones. The study is based on more than 500 samples (21 localities) collected from an interior and an exterior zone of New Guinea's central cordillera. The two zones are separated by the Tahin and Stolle–Lagaip–Kaugel Fault zones and collectively represent the para-autochthonous northern margin of the Australian craton. Samples from the interior zone, which in the study area comprises a cratonic spur of uncertain—probably displaced—origin, come from Triassic to Miocene sediments and subordinate volcanics of the Kubor Anticline, Jimi Terrane, and Yaveufa Syncline (16 localities) in the central and eastern Highlands. Samples from the exterior zone, which represent a basement-involved, Pliocene foreland fold-and-thrust belt, come from Middle Eocene to Middle Miocene carbonates and clastics (five localities) in the southern Highlands of the Papuan Fold Belt. Results permit us to constrain the tectonic evolution of the two zones palaeomagnetically. Using mainly thermal demagnetization techniques, three main magnetic components have been identified in the collection: (1) a recent field overprint of both normal and reverse polarity; (2) a pervasive overprint of mainly normal polarity that originated during extensive Middle to Late Miocene intrusive activity in the central cordillera; and (3) a primary component which has been identified in only 7 of the 21 localities (5 of 11 stratigraphic units represented in the collection). All components show patterns of rotation that are consistent within the zones, but differ between them. In the interior zone (central and eastern Highlands), large-scale counterclockwise rotations of between 30°+ and 100°+ have been established throughout the Kubor Anticline and Jimi Terrane, with some clockwise rotation present in the southern part of the Yaveufa Syncline. In contrast, in the Mendi area of the exterior zone (southern Highlands), clockwise rotations of between 30°+ and 50°+ can be recognized. These contrasting rotation patterns across the Tahin and Stolle–Lagaip–Kaugel Fault zones indicate decoupling of the two tectonic zones, probably along basement-involved faults. The clockwise rotations in the southern Highlands of the Papuan Fold Belt are to be expected from its structural grain, and are probably governed by regional basement faults and transverse lineaments. In contrast, the pattern of counterclockwise rotations in the Kubor Anticline–Jimi Terrane cratonic spur of the central and eastern Highlands was unexpected. The pattern is interpreted to result from non-rigid rotation of continental terranes as they were transported westward across the northeastern margin of the Australian craton. This margin became reorganised after the Middle Miocene, when the steadily northward-advancing Australian craton impinged into the westward-moving Pacific plate/buffer-plate system. Transpressional reorganisation under the influence of the sinistral Tonga–Sulawesi megashear became enhanced with Mio-Pliocene docking, and subsequent southward overthrusting, of the Finisterre Terrane onto the northeastern margin of the Australian craton.     

Palaeovegetational and palaeoenvironmental trends in the summit of the Guaiquinima massif (Venezuelan Guayana) during the Holocene

The summits of the table mountains (tepuis) from the Neotropical Guayana region are remote environments suitable for palaeoecological studies with evolutionary, biogeographical and palaeoclimatic implications. Here, using palynological analyses of two radiocarbon‐dated peat bogs from a tepui summit, the Holocene palaeovegetational trends are reconstructed, and related to possible forcing factors. Because of the pristine character of the Guaiquinima summit, the recorded palaeoenvironmental changes are probably due to natural causes, which makes them valuable archives of the natural component of climatic change at a millennial time scale. The sequence begins with pioneer communities or meadows similar to present‐day ones, between about 8.4 and 4.5 ky BP. After this date, and until about 2 kyr BP the expansion of gallery forests suggests an increase in precipitation, documented also at regional (Neotropical) level. Between ca. 2 kyr BP and the last century, gallery forests are replaced by forests characteristic of the upper Guaiquinima altitudes, coinciding with a regional phase of reduced moisture. The present‐day meadows, established relatively quickly during the last century, substituted the former upland forests. In the locality studied, the main controlling factor of the vegetation during the Holocene seems to have been the moisture balance. In contrast to other tepui summits, there is no clear evidence for changes linked to temperature oscillations. This could be due to the elevation of the site, far from any characteristic ecological boundary, that makes it insensitive to this parameter. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Grampian migmatites in the Buchan Block,NE Scotland

Rocks exposed along the Scottish coast between Fraserburgh and Inzie Head contain information critical to understanding the evolution of the Buchan Block, the type locality for low‐P, high‐T regional metamorphism, and its relationship with the rest of the Grampian terrane, one of the major tectonostratigraphic components of the Scottish Caledonides. The ~8 km long section traverses a regional network of shear zones and, at the highest grades around Inzie Head, passes into the core of the Buchan Anticline, a large‐scale open fold that is commonly regarded as a late structure, post‐dating metamorphism. The metasedimentary rocks increase in grade from upper amphibolite to granulite facies and preserve unequivocal evidence for partial melting. The diatexite migmatites around Inzie Head, along with other gneissose units within the Buchan Block, have been regarded as allochthonous Precambrian basement rocks that were thrust into their current position during the Grampian orogenesis. However, field observations show that the onset of in situ partial melting in metapelitic rocks, which was associated with the formation of garnet‐bearing aplites and associated pegmatites, occurred around Fraserburgh, where shear fabrics are absent. Thus, the rocks preserve a continuous metamorphic field gradient that straddles the shear zone network. This observation supports an alternative interpretation that anatexis was the result of mid‐Ordovician (Grampian) metamorphism, rather than an older tectonothermal event, and that the Inzie Head gneisses are autochthonous. Using an average mid‐Dalradian pelite as a plausible representative protolith, phase equilibria modelling satisfactorily reproduces the observed appearance and disappearance of key minerals providing that peritectic garnet produced with the first formed melts (represented by the garnet‐bearing aplites) depleted the source rocks in Mn. The modelled metamorphic field gradient records a temperature increase of at least 150 °C (from ~650 °C near Fraserburgh to in excess of 800 °C at Inzie Head) but is isobaric at pressures of 2.7–2.8 kbar, suggesting the Buchan Anticline developed synchronous with partial melting. The Buchan Anticline is likely an expression of crustal thinning and asthenospheric upwelling, which produced voluminous gabbroic intrusions that supplied the heat for Buchan metamorphism.     

An ecological economics framework for assessing environmental flows: the case of inter-basin water transfers in Lesotho

This paper used the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) that transfers water from the Orange River Basin in Lesotho to the Vaal River Basin in South Africa as a case study to show how environmental sustainability aspects can be integrated into economic development planning. Using the Ecological Social Accounting Matrix (ESAM) for Lesotho that integrates ecological implications of the LHWP with economic benefits of the project, the paper analysed the impact of lost ecological services downstream the LHWP dams in Lesotho on the well-being of households directly affected by the project (riparians) and the general economy of the country. The results revealed that despite significant economic benefits, the project has unintended impacts on ecological resources and services with resultant deleterious well-being implications for riparians. The results from the ESAM analysis indicated that not only the income of riparians is likely to suffer, but also that of other households and social groups, as well as the general economy of Lesotho. While results of the ESAM analysis did not indicate large income impacts on the economy at large, they were significant for riparians. The importance of integrating ecological consequences into impact assessment of IBWT before such transfers can be implemented to ensure sustainable development and considering economy-wide impacts associated with IBWT was proven necessary for a holistic impact assessment of IBWT.     

Zircon geochronology reveals polyphase magmatism and crustal anatexis in the Buchan Block,NE Scotland: Implications for the Grampian Orogeny

The type locality for high-temperature,low-pressure regional metamorphism,the Buchan Block in NE Scotland,exhibits profound differences to the rest of the Grampian Terrane.These differences have led some to regard the Buchan Block as an exotic crustal fragment comprising Precambrian basement gneisses and cover rocks thrust into their current position during Grampian orogenesis.Although rocks of the Buchan Block are now generally correlated with Dalradian strata elsewhere,the origin of the gneisses and the cause of the high heat flow and associated magmatism is debated.We report SIMS U-Pb and LA-ICPMS Hf isotopic data in zircon from high-grade rocks from the northeast(Inzie Head Gneiss)and northwest(Portsoy)corners of the Buchan Block.Around Inzie Head,upper amphibolite to granulite facies metasedimentary gneisses coexist with diorite sheets that were emplaced contemporaneously with partial melting of their host rocks,at least locally.U-Pb geochronology indicates a crystallisation age for the diorite of 486±9 Ma.Highly-deformed diorites within the Portsoy Gabbro have a crystallisation age of 493±8 Ma.Ages of ca.490 Ma for magmatism and high-grade metamorphism,which are broadly contemporaneous with ophiolite obduction and the onset of orogenesis,are significantly older than the established peak of Grampian metamorphism(ca.470 Ma).We propose a new model for the Grampian Orogeny involving punctuated tectonothermal activity due to tectonic switching during accretionary orogenesis.Rollback of a NW-dipping subduction zone at ca.490 Ma produced a back-arc environment(the Buchan Block)with associated arc magmatism and high dT/dP metamorphism.Arrival of an outboard arc resulted in shortening(the initial phase of the Grampian Orogeny)at ca.488 Ma.Rollback of a NW-dipping subduction zone to the SE of the ca.488 Ma suture began at 473 Ma and led to lithospheric-scale extension,decompression melting and advective heating of the middle crust,producing the widespread ca.470 Ma Grampian(classic Barrovian and Buchan)regional metamorphism.Resumed hinge advance and the final phase of shortening cut off the heat supply at ca.465 Ma,marking the end of the Grampian Orogeny.     

A large sedimentary basin in the Terra Sirenum region of the southern highlands of Mars

Different lines of evidence point to hydrological cycling in the martian past. The extent, duration, and magnitude of this cycling remains unclear, as well as the magnitude of aqueous processes on the surface. Here, we provide geomorphic and mineralogic evidence of a large inter-crater sedimentary basin located in the Terra Sirenum region, which was once covered by a body of liquid water with an areal extent of at least 30,000 km² and a depth of approximately 200 m. The topographic basin, which is modified by a number of large impact craters, is partly controlled by ancient impact and tectonic structures. As a result of evaporation of the large body of water, salt flats formed in the lowest topographic reaches of the basin. Hydrated phyllosilicates occur in close proximity to the salt flats and in the ejecta and rim materials of small impact craters with stratigraphic relations that suggest that they underlie the evaporite deposits. Crater statistics place the maximum age of aqueous activity during the Late Noachian epoch. The relatively pristine mineral deposits in the basin have a high potential to yield information of the geochemistry and water activity during the ancient Noachian Period when conditions were seemingly more conducive to life.     

Denudation history of the Southeastern Highlands of Australia

The low-relief summit plateaus (high plains) of the Southeastern Highlands are remnants of a widespread peneplain that was initially uplifted in the mid-Cretaceous and reached its current elevation in the Miocene–Pliocene. There are two mutually exclusive scenarios for the origin of the high plains: an uplifted peneplain originally formed by long-term denudation through the Mesozoic and late Paleozoic, contrasting with creation by ～1.5 km of erosion following the mid-Cretaceous uplift (based on fission track data). The hypothesis of a Mesozoic peneplain is consistent with the low relief of the high plains, the ca 200 Ma available to form the peneplain, and the pre-late Mesozoic oxygen-isotope composition of secondary kaolinites in weathering profiles on the high plains. If the ca 30 Ma cooling event recorded by the fission track data is due to ～1.5 km of denudation, then the high plains peneplain formed in the Late Cretaceous–early Paleogene, close to sea-level, and was uplifted in the early Paleogene, because evidence from basalts and fossil floras shows that the high plains surface was moderately elevated in the Eocene. This scenario is difficult to reconcile with the long-term erosion necessary to form such an extensive peneplain, the lack of sedimentary evidence for early Paleogene uplift, and the relatively small reduction in elevation (～250 m) that would have resulted from ～1.5 km of erosion (because the crust in this area is in isostatic equilibrium). Furthermore, extensive Cretaceous–early Paleogene denudation should have removed the pre-late Mesozoic secondary kaolinites present in weathering profiles in the highlands. There is no evidence that the Mesozoic peneplain was buried by kilometres of sediment and then exhumed in the Cretaceous–early Paleogene. I therefore conclude that the high plains of the Southeastern Highlands are the remnants of a Mesozoic peneplain uplifted in the mid-Cretaceous and again in the Miocene–Pliocene.     

Geomorphology of the Barrington Tops area,New South Wales

K‐Ar total rock age determinations have been made on a sequence of metasedimentary rocks resting on a 2350 m.y.‐old basement in southern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. The metasediments have an Rb‐Sr age of 1785 m.y., but K‐Ar isochrons suggest that relatively high temperatures persisted for a further 250 million years before the rocks became systems closed to K and Ar diffusion. A significant amount of ⁴⁰Ar was trapped in the metasediments at the time of closure of the K‐Ar system, 1550 million years ago.