Sustainability of transhumance grazing systems under socio-economic threats in Langtang,Nepal

The decline or loss of traditional social- ecological systems may induce adverse effects to the societies and ecosystems. Transhumance, the recurring and seasonal movement of grazing livestock, is increasingly constrained by a numbers of factors including policy, land use and soeio-economic changes in Nepal. To explore how these changes have affected the transhumance, this study investigated transhumance at the Langtang valley in central Nepal. The specific objectives of this study were to determine the herd size and composition, spatial-temporal patterns and to identify the major drivers of the system and the system changes. Data were collected from field study comprising semi-structured interviews with the herders, focus group discussions, key informants survey, and observations of rangeland and livestock management systems. The study revealed that the transhumanee system in the Langtang is influenced by two types of drivers. In one hand, traditional practices are contributing to the sustainability of the system. On the other hand, the grazing patterns and adaptive responses are strongly influenced by changes in government policies, socioeconomic and cultural transformation, livestock productivity, markets, rangeland conditions and climate change. The findings of this study help with the development and implementation of transhumance management policy for the sustainability.     

Archaeological evidence for pastoralist land-use and settlement in Namaqualand over the last 2000 years

Despite the extreme aridity of the region, there is good evidence that sheep were being herded in small numbers in Namaqualand up to 2000 years ago. Archaeological research at Spoegrivier Cave on the Atlantic coast confirms the presence of sheep at 2100 years ago. Increasing aridity in Namaqualand around 1300 years ago lead to the abandonment of the cave. Jakkalsberg on the banks of the Orange River in the Richtersveld was occupied around 1300 BP by people who were herding sheep rather than hunting game. People with sheep and goats were herding their livestock at Bethelsklip, in central Namaqualand, between 800 and 360 BP. The archaeological evidence clearly supports a long tradition of herding in the region. The question is whether these early herder groups are the ancestors of the Namaqua Khoekhoen pastoralists who occupied Namaqualand during historical times?Historical records from the 17 to 20th centuries testify to the seasonal transhumance of the Namaqua with cattle, sheep and goats between the Kamiesberg Mountains and the plains. On occasions pastoralist groups also moved to the interior plateau of Bushmanland to make use of the seasonal grasses after summer thunderstorms. Traditional land-use practices have a long history in the region and a study of these land-use patterns may assist in interpreting the archaeological record and in developing a sustainable land-use policy for the region.     

Ecological constraints on and consequences of land use heterogeneity: A case study of the Mongolian Gobi

Mongolian herders are transhumant and therefore follow a specific land use pattern. To understand their movements through a case study, we mapped and superimposed their seasonal camps on a vegetation map and a digital elevation model. We also questioned them about the reasons justifying the locations of their camps, and how they use the surrounding land. It appears that vegetation quality may play a role only in summer, whereas topography is a key driver during 3 seasons. In winter, herders seek shelter against cold winds in rugged places exposed to the south, while in spring and summer, they seek flat places. In spring, to have a clear view of their newborns and in summer, to allow wind to reduce the insect discomfort. Moreover, most of the livestock species stay within a certain distance of the camps depending on the season, but which never exceeds 5.1 km. This leads to a land use pattern where livestock is restrained to specific areas according to the season. Interestingly, during the growing season, when plants are most sensitive to defoliation, most livestock is concentrated on 30.92% of the site surface. Such information is important for range scientists working on grazing impacts at large scales.     

Social and ecological constraints on decision making by transhumant pastoralists: a case study from the Moroccan Atlas Mountains

Transhumant pastoralism is an important activity in southern Morocco. Migration pattern of transhumant pastoralists can be affected by physical factors (e.g. droughts and diseases) or socioeconomic factors (e.g. schooling options for children and migration costs). We studied the spatio-temporal rangeland usage of the three tribes Ait Mgoun, Ait Zekri, and Ait Toumert in the south-central Atlas region with a two-fold approach. First, we tracked the migration movements of one representative transhumant herd using the Advanced Research and Global Observation Satellite (ARGOS) collars, which record coordinates from satellite signals. Second, we interviewed herders to obtain information about general grazing practices of the respective tribe and to gain more direct information on motivations underlying decisions. For each tribe we observed small-, medium- and large-scale movements. We found that the most important drivers of migration decisions were seasonal fodder availability and weather conditions in combination with herd-specific risk and cost assessment, as well as personal factors. In conclusion, general migration patterns vary in time, both between and within the tribes, but according to a regulatory framework. Moreover, it appears that both the customary rules and its flexible adaptation to physical constraints are generally beneficial in terms of conservation of the arid and semiarid rangeland resources.