A systematic approach towards the identification and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems

The United Nations General Assembly in 2006 and 2009 adopted resolutions that call for the identification and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) from significant adverse impacts of bottom fishing. While general criteria have been produced, there are no guidelines or protocols that elaborate on the process from initial identification through to the protection of VMEs. Here, based upon an expert review of existing practices, a 10-step framework is proposed: (1) Comparatively assess potential VME indicator taxa and habitats in a region; (2) determine VME thresholds; (3) consider areas already known for their ecological importance; (4) compile information on the distributions of likely VME taxa and habitats, as well as related environmental data; (5) develop predictive distribution models for VME indicator taxa and habitats; (6) compile known or likely fishing impacts; (7) produce a predicted VME naturalness distribution (areas of low cumulative impacts); (8) identify areas of higher value to user groups; (9) conduct management strategy evaluations to produce trade-off scenarios; (10) review and re-iterate, until spatial management scenarios are developed that fulfil international obligations and regional conservation and management objectives. To date, regional progress has been piecemeal and incremental. The proposed 10-step framework combines these various experiences into a systematic approach.     

Towards a market-oriented management model for straddling fish stocks

Management of straddling fish stocks has been noted for its political complexity. Negotiations frequently falter as each party seeks to focus upon their own individual and shorter-term goals than the collective interest of the sector. Entrenched positions are often only deepened as new entrants participate to establish their own claims to any emergent share of resource. Unsurprisingly, deadlocks are common and typically compromises are reached only after the real period of biological then economic crisis has passed. Examples to illustrate this tendency can be found in most of the world's oceans and is writ large within the current impasse over blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) in the North Atlantic. The development of this fishery is discussed and it is shown that despite the scope to add value to the resource base through a pattern of exploitation focussed more upon human consumption than fish meal and oil, there seems little incentive to extricate participants from the cycle of demise that has engulfed negotiations so far.     

Evaluating the basic elements of transparency of regional fisheries management organizations

This paper reports on the first global study of regional fisheries management organization (RFMO) transparency. It was prompted by recent scholarship that suggests that RFMOs are failing to meet their conservation and management mandates and that transparency is a critical element of this performance. In this study, 11 RFMOs were evaluated using 34 questions, divided into three sections: (i) access to full, up-to-date and accurate information; (ii) public participation in decision-making; and (iii) access to outcomes. Secretariats for all 11 RFMOs were contacted, and all responded, to correct and comment on initial findings and to share additional information. The total scores in this study reflect transparency as measured against current good practices in RFMOs as a whole, rather than some sort of idealistic benchmark. Each question should therefore be seen as a diagnostic tool that shows where some RFMO(s) fall short and how they can correct the shortfall based on the practices of their peers. These results have highlighted a number of good practices amongst RFMOs, with no single RFMO standing out as having particularly poor transparency practices. On the other hand, there also were not any RFMOs that had exemplary transparency practices in every respect and all RFMOs still have room to improve upon their basic transparency practices. This first transparency assessment is necessarily broad in nature and considers only very basic elements of transparency. It is to be expected that as RFMO practices become more sophisticated, so will the techniques and criteria of future transparency assessments.     

The management of the distant water tuna fishery in Taiwan

Since the 1960s Taiwan has been a significant player in the global distant water tuna fisheries (DWTF). However, Taiwan's lack of political recognition has led some fisheries businesses to employ less conventional methods including Flags of Convenience (FOCs) in harvesting tuna resources. Meanwhile, Taiwan has been experiencing the painful cost of readjusted DWTF policies. This paper compares the readjusted policies in accordance with international management instruments and tuna compliance requirements (Compliance Agreement and UNFSA) and domestic laws are already undergoing adjustments to take these into account. This again demonstrates Taiwan's unique position in the international community: despite it not being a member of the United Nations, Taiwan spares no effort to ensure the sustainability of marine resources, and does its utmost to fulfill the responsibilities and duties of a Flag State.     

Politics and independent scientific advice in RFMO processes: A case study of crossing boundaries

Provision of independent scientific advice is central to the operation of regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) even though RFMOs are largely policy (and political) instruments. Political pressures and intervention in science and crossing of the boundaries between scientific and political processes, however, appear to be relatively common. A case study is presented to illustrate some ways in which this occurs. It involves a paper that was withdrawn from scientific meetings of two RFMOs as a result of largely political (rather than scientific) concerns. The details involved in this incident are important for understanding the ways in which political intervention in independent scientific process can and does occur. Moreover, unless one is directly involved in actions of this kind, it is impossible from the reports of RFMOs' scientific bodies to assess whether, and the extent to which, there has been political intervention in the scientific process. It is argued that the nature of the working arrangements in these scientific committees can engender deliberate or inadvertent crossing of the boundaries between scientific independence and the political processes of RFMOs, both of which are important components of RFMO operation. Further, there is very little documentation or assessment of the generic extent of such problems. No simple solutions or reforms exist for isolating scientific advice from political agenda in the processes of RFMOs but it is suggested that increased discussion of the problem along with better understanding and clarity of the role of science in the management process may lead to improved recognition of the importance of independent scientific analyses and advice.     

Assessment of IUU fishing for Southern Bluefin Tuna

Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is recognized as one of the largest threats to the sustainability of the world's fisheries. This paper focuses on IUU fishing in the context of unreported catches by members or co-operating non-members of regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and their implications for scientific assessments of stock status and management advice. A review of Japanese market statistics was undertaken in 2006 by an independent panel in relation to catches of southern bluefin tuna (SBT). Based on this review, the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT) concluded that very substantial and continuous unreported catches of SBT had been taken by longline vessels since at least the early 1990s. While uncertainty exists about the fleets contributing to these IUU catches, the assumption used within the CCSBT Scientific Committee is that a significant proportion of these were taken by Japanese longliners. Implications of these unreported catches for the stock assessments by RFMOs are discussed in light of the central role that Japanese vessel reported data have in the assessment of the world's tuna and billfish stocks. Results indicate that it is plausible that the unreported catches of SBT stem from the misreporting of catches as other tuna species and/or the location of fishing effort. The magnitude and extended period of the unreported SBT catches highlight the wide-spread risks of relying on fishery dependent logbook data in the absence of verification. An urgent need exists for minimum standards of verification of catch, effort and landing statistics for use in scientific assessments. The fisheries science community needs to be more pro-active in the development of such standards and the implementation of independent monitoring and verification. In addition, there is a need to reform the operation of the scientific bodies of RFMOs in terms of transparency, the treatment of uncertainty and the burden of proof if they are to be effective in providing objective scientific advice consistent with the intent of international agreements.