Provenance analysis and tectonic setting of the Ordovician clastic deposits in the southern Puna Basin, NW Argentina

Provenance studies on Early to Middle Ordovician clastic formations of the southern Puna basin in north-western Argentina indicate that the sedimentary detritus is generally composed of reworked crustal material. Tremadoc quartz-rich turbidites (Tolar Chico Formation, mean composition Q_t89 F7 L4) are followed by volcaniclastic rocks and greywackes (Tolillar Formation, mean Q_t33 F42 L25). These are in turn overlain by volcaniclastic deposits (mean Q_t24 F30 L46) of the Diablo Formation (late Arenig–early Llanvirn) that are intercalated by lava flows. All units were deformed in the Oclóyic Orogeny during the Middle and Late Ordovician. Sandstones of the Tolar Chico Formation are characterized by Th/Sc ratios > 1, La/Sc ratios ≈ 10, whereas associated fine-grained wackes show slightly lower values for both ratios. LREE (light rare earth elements) enrichment of the arenites is ≈ 50× chondrite, Eu/Eu* values are between 0·72 and 0·92, and flat HREE (heavy rare earth elements) patterns indicate a derivation from mostly felsic rocks of typical upper crustal composition. The ε_{Nd(t = sed)} values scatter around −11 to −9. The calculated Nd-T_DM residence ages vary between 1·8 and 2·0 Ga indicating contribution by a Palaeoproterozoic crustal component. The Th/Sc and La/Sc ratios of the Tolillar Formation are lower than those of the Tolar Chico Formation. Normalized REE (rare earth elements) patterns display a similar shape to PAAS (post-Archaean average Australian shale) but with higher abundances of HREEs. Eu/Eu* values range between 0·44 and 1·17, where the higher values reflect the abundance of plagioclase and feldspar-bearing volcanic lithoclasts. Average ε_{Nd(t = sed)} values are less negative at −5·1, and Nd-T_DM are lower at 1·6 Ga. This is consistent with characteristics of regional rocks of upper continental crust composition, which most probably represent the sources of the studied detritus. The rocks of the Diablo Formation have the lowest Th/Sc and La/Sc ratios, lower LREE abundances than the average continental crust and are slightly enriched in HREEs. Eu/Eu* values are between 0·63 and 1·17. The Nd isotopes (ε_{Nd(t = sed)} = −3 to −1; T_DM = 1·2 Ga) indicate that one source component was less fractionated than both the underlying Early Ordovician and the overlying Middle Ordovician units. Synsedimentary vulcanites in the Diablo Formation show the same isotopic composition. Our data indicate that the sedimentary detritus is generally composed of reworked crustal material, but that the Diablo Formation appears to contain ≈ 80% of a less fractionated component, derived from a contemporaneous continental volcanic arc. There are no data indicating an exotic detrital source or the accretion of an exotic block at this part of the Gondwana margin during the Ordovician.     

Ordovician igneous and metamorphic units in southeastern Puna: New U–Pb and Sm–Nd data and implications for the evolution of northwestern Argentina

New field, petrological, geochemical, and geochronological data (U–Pb and Sm–Nd) for Ordovician rock units in the southeastern Puna, NW Argentina, indicate two lithostratigraphic units at the eastern–northeastern border of salar Centenario: (1) a bimodal volcanosedimentary sequence affected by low- to medium-grade metamorphism, comprising metasediments associated with basic and felsic metavolcanic rocks, dated 485 ± 5 Ma, and (2) a plutonic unit composed of syenogranites to quartz-rich leucogranites with U–Pb zircon ages between 462 ± 7 and 475 ± 5 Ma. Felsic metavolcanic and plutonic rocks are peraluminous and show similar geochemical differentiation trends. They also have similar Sm–Nd isotopic compositions (T_DM model ages of 1.54–1.78 Ga; ε_Nd(T) values ranging from −3.2 to −7.5) that suggest a common origin and derivation of the original magmas from older (Meso-Paleoproterozoic?) continental crust. Mafic rocks show ε_Nd(T) ranging from +2.3 to +2.5, indicating a depleted mantle source. The data presented here, combined with those in the literature, suggest Ordovician magmatism mainly recycles preexisting crust with minor additions of juvenile mantle-derived material.     

Kīlauea summit overflows: their ages and distribution in the Puna District, Hawai'i

 The tube-fed pāhoehoe lava flows covering much of the northeast flank of Kīlauea Volcano are named the 'Ailā'au flows. Their eruption age, based on published and six new radiocarbon dates, is approximately AD 1445. The flows have distinctive paleomagnetic directions with steep inclinations (40°–50°) and easterly declinations (0°–10°E). The lava was transported ∼40 km from the vent to the coast in long, large-diameter lava tubes; the longest tube (Kazumura Cave) reaches from near the summit to within several kilometers of the coast near Kaloli Point. The estimated volume of the 'Ailā'au flow field is 5.2±0.8 km³, and the eruption that formed it probably lasted for approximately 50 years. Summit overflows from Kīlauea may have been nearly continuous between approximately AD 1290 and 1470, during which time a series of shields formed at and around the summit. The 'Ailā'au shield was either the youngest or the next to youngest in this series of shields. Site-mean paleomagnetic directions for lava flows underlying the 'Ailā'au flows form only six groups. These older pāhoehoe flows range in age from 2750 to <18,000 BP, and the region was inundated by lava flows only three times in the past 5000 years. The known intervals between eruptive events average ∼1600 years and range from ∼1250 years to >2200 years. Lava flows from most of these summit eruptions also reached the coast, but none appears as extensive as the 'Ailā'au flow field. The chemistry of the melts erupted during each of these summit overflow events is remarkably similar, averaging approximately 6.3 wt.% MgO near the coast and 6.8 wt.% MgO near the summit. The present-day caldera probably formed more recently than the eruption that formed the 'Ailā'au flows (estimated termination ca. AD 1470). The earliest explosive eruptions that formed the Keanakāko'i Ash, which is stratigraphically above the 'Ailā'au flows, cannot be older than this age. Received: 10 October 1998 / Accepted: 12 May 1999     

The Cerro Morado Andesites: Volcanic history and eruptive styles of a mafic volcanic field from northern Puna, Argentina

The Upper Miocene Cerro Morado Andesites constitutes a mafic volcanic field (100 km²) composed of andesite to basaltic andesite rocks that crop out 75 km to the east from the current arc, in the northern Puna of Argentina. The volcanic field comprises lavas and scoria cones resulting from three different eruptive phases developed without long interruptions between each other. Lavas and pyroclastic rocks are thought to be sourced from the same vents, located where orogen-parallel north-south faults crosscut transverse structures.The first eruptive phase involved the effusion of extensive andesitic flows, and minor Hawaiian-style fountaining which formed subordinate clastogenic lavas. The second phase represents the eruption of slightly less evolved andesite lavas and pyroclastic deposits, only distributed to the north and central sectors of the volcanic field. The third phase represents the discharge of basaltic andesite magmas which occurred as both pyroclastic eruptions and lava effusion from scattered vents distributed throughout the entire volcanic field. The interpreted facies model for scoria cones fits well with products of typical Strombolian-type activity, with minor fountaining episodes to the final stages of eruptions.Petrographic and chemical features suggest that the andesitic units (SiO₂ > 57%) evolved by crystal fractionation. In contrast, characteristics of basaltic andesite rocks are inconsistent with residence in upper-crustal chambers, suggesting that batches of magmas with different origins or evolutive histories arrived at the surface and erupted coevally.Based on the eruptive styles and lack of volcanic quiescence gaps between eruptions, the Cerro Morado Andesites can be classified as a mafic volcanic field constructed from the concurrent activity of several small, probably short-lived, monogenetic centers.     

Playa‐lake sedimentation and organic matter accumulation in an Andean piggyback basin: the recent record from the Cuenca de Pozuelos,North‐west Argentina

Expansive playa‐lake systems situated in high‐altitude piggyback basins are important and conspicuous components of both modern and ancient cordilleran orogenic systems. Extant playa lakes provide vital habitat for numerous endemic species, whereas sediments from these deposystems may record signals of climate change or develop natural resources over geological time. Laguna de los Pozuelos (North‐west Argentina) provides the opportunity for an actualistic sedimentological and geochemical assessment of a piggyback basin playa lake in an area of critical interest for understanding Quaternary palaeoclimate dynamics. Silty clays and diatom ooze are the dominant playa‐lake centre microfacies, with concentrations of total organic carbon and biogenic silica commonly exceeding 1·5 wt% in this sub‐environment. Elemental and stable isotopic analyses point to a mixed organic matter composition in the playa‐lake centre, with substantial contributions from algae and transported aquatic macrophytes. Bulk sediment and organic mass accumulation rates in the southern playa‐lake centre approach 0·22 g cm^?2 year^?1 and 2·89 mg cm^?2 year^?1, respectively, indicating moderately rapid deposition with negligible deflation over historic time. Playa margin facies contain higher percentages of fragmented biogenic carbonate (ostracods and charophytes) and inorganically precipitated aragonite crusts due to seasonal pumping and evaporation of ground water. Organic matter accumulation is limited along these heavily bioturbated wet and dry mud flats. Fluvial–lacustrine transitional environments, which are key waterbird habitats, are either silty terminal splay (northern axis) or sandy deltas (southern axis) containing highly oxidized and partially allochthonous organic matter. Modern analogue data from Laguna de los Pozuelos provide key insights for: (i) environmental reconstructions of ancient lake sequences; and (ii) improving facies models for piggyback basins.     

Short-lived radium isotopes in the Hawaiian margin: Evidence for large fluid fluxes through the Puna Ridge

We measured significant activities of short-lived radium isotopes, ²²³Ra (half-life = 11 days) and ²²⁴Ra (half-life = 3.7 days), around the margins of the Hawaiian Islands to water depths of 3500 m. These measurements suggest fluid inputs from the basalt to the surrounding ocean. In general ²²³Ra activities were considerably greater than ²²⁴Ra in spite of the expected higher production rate of ²²⁴Ra activity in basalt. The ²²³Ra was not supported by dissolved ²²⁷Ac. The highest enrichments of ²²³Ra were measured over the Puna Ridge (2100 m depth) east of Hawaii. Here ²²³Ra activities reached 19 dpm/m³, similar to activities measured near sites of active submarine groundwater discharge in the South Atlantic Bight. To explain the high activities of ²²³Ra unaccompanied by ²²⁴Ra, we postulate that thermally-driven circulation of seawater through the Puna Ridge deposits ²³¹Pa on basalt surfaces. With time the ²³¹Pa produces ²²⁷Ac and ²²³Ra; and ²²³Ra desorbs into the circulating fluids. These fluids then transport ²²³Ra into the overlying ocean. Based on the inventory of ²²³Ra above the Puna Ridge, we estimate the flow of fluids through the ridge to be on the order of 20–60 cm³ cm^− 2 day^− 1. In less than 1000 years the incoming seawater could provide enough ²³¹Pa to basalt surfaces to balance the inventory of ²²³Ra above the ridge if only 8% of the ²²³Ra was transported to the overlying water. These observations on the flanks of a volcanically-active ocean island have significant implications for quantifying fluid fluxes from the flanks of the mid-ocean ridge system. By mapping ²²³Ra inventories in the ocean above ridge flanks and measuring the activity of ²²³Ra in the emerging fluids, the fluid flux can be obtained.     

Evidence for lithospheric detachment in the central Andes from local earthquake tomography

Data from three temporary seismic networks were merged for tomographic inversion. Although the deployments did not coincide in time, spatial overlap was achieved by re-occupying existing sites. Travel times and t operators of about 1600 earthquakes were inverted for 3D models of ν_p, ν_p/ν_s and P-wave attenuation (Q_p^− 1). All three attributes provide a consistent image of the entire subduction zone on a lithospheric scale. The tomographic images reveal low velocities and high attenuation in the crust and mantle underlying the Western Cordillera and most of the Puna plateau, indicative of weak rheology and mostly asthenospheric mantle. In contrast, forearc and eastern foreland are characterized by high Q_p values, corresponding to cold temperatures in accordance with thermal models. In the backarc, between 23°S and 24°S, a high velocity, high Q_p structure beneath the Eastern Cordillera and eastern Puna is interpreted as detaching continental lithosphere that has been thickened in the orogenic process. South of this structure, the mantle is characterized by low velocities, high ν_p/ν_s ratios, and low Q_p values. Here it is believed that lithosphere originally underlying Andean crust has already been removed. This is supported by new estimates of crustal thickness and volcanic activity.     

New paleomagnetic data from Upper Oligocene–Lower Miocene rocks of the Northern Argentine Puna–Southern Bolivian Altiplano: Constraining the age of vertical axis rotations

Along the Central Andes a pattern of vertical axis rotations has been paleomagnetically identified. Such rotations are counterclockwise north of Arica Deflection (∼19° S) and clockwise to the south. Different hypothesis and models have been proposed to explain the Central Andean Rotation Pattern (CARP). However, the origin of the CARP is a subject of ongoing debate. Recently, different authors have proposed the possible existence of a close correlation between the time–space distribution of deformation and the amount of registered vertical axis rotations in the Southern Central Andes. In order to further investigate such relationship, new paleomagnetic studies were carried out in Upper Oligocene–Lower Miocene rocks of the Northern Argentine Puna and the Southern Bolivian Altiplano. Our results indicate that while one of the sampled localities did not undergo significant vertical axis rotations, the other two recorded clockwise vertical axis rotations larger than 30°. These results suggest the occurrence of small-block rotations in the Southern Bolivian Altiplano–Northern Argentine Puna prior to 15 Ma, which would correspond to the local accommodation of the regional deformation field.     

Twenty-five million years of silicic volcanism in the southern central volcanic zone of the Andes: Geochemistry and magma genesis of ignimbrites from 25 to 27 °S, 67 to 72 °W

Silicic volcanism in the Andean Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) produced one of the world's largest Neogene ignimbrite provinces. The largest and best-known CVZ ignimbrites are located on the Altiplano-Puna plateau north of 24 °S. Their compositions and huge erupted volumes suggest an origin by large-scale crustal melting, and present-day geophysical anomalies in this region suggest still active zones of partial melting in the middle crust. Farther south in the CVZ, the Cerro Galán complex erupted ignimbrites in the late Miocene and Pliocene that are quite similar in volume and composition to those from north of 24 °S and they have a similar origin. However, there are a great many other, smaller ignimbrites in the southern CVZ whose compositions and geodynamic significance are poorly known. These are the subject of this paper.     

Miocene to Quaternary basin evolution at the southeastern Andean Plateau (Puna) margin (ca. 24°S lat,Northwestern Argentina)

The Andean Plateau of NW Argentina is a prominent example of a high‐elevation orogenic plateau characterized by internal drainage, arid to hyper‐arid climatic conditions and a compressional basin‐and‐range morphology comprising thick sedimentary basins. However, the development of the plateau as a geomorphic entity is not well understood. Enhanced orographic rainout along the eastern, windward plateau flank causes reduced fluvial run‐off and thus subdued surface‐process rates in the arid hinterland. Despite this, many Puna basins document a complex history of fluvial processes that have transformed the landscape from aggrading basins with coalescing alluvial fans to the formation of multiple fluvial terraces that are now abandoned. Here, we present data from the San Antonio de los Cobres (SAC) area, a sub‐catchment of the Salinas Grandes Basin located on the eastern Puna Plateau bordering the externally drained Eastern Cordillera. Our data include: (a) new radiometric U‐Pb zircon data from intercalated volcanic ash layers and detrital zircons from sedimentary key horizons; (b) sedimentary and geochemical provenance indicators; (c) river profile analysis; and (d) palaeo‐landscape reconstruction to assess aggradation, incision and basin connectivity. Our results suggest that the eastern Puna margin evolved from a structurally controlled intermontane basin during the Middle Miocene, similar to intermontane basins in the Mio‐Pliocene Eastern Cordillera and the broken Andean foreland. Our refined basin stratigraphy implies that sedimentation continued during the Late Mio‐Pliocene and the Quaternary, after which the SAC area was subjected to basin incision and excavation of the sedimentary fill. Because this incision is unrelated to baselevel changes and tectonic processes, and is similar in timing to the onset of basin fill and excavation cycles of intermontane basins in the adjacent Eastern Cordillera, we suspect a regional climatic driver, triggered by the Mid‐Pleistocene Climate Transition, caused the present‐day morphology. Our observations suggest that lateral orogenic growth, aridification of orogenic interiors, and protracted plateau sedimentation are all part of a complex process chain necessary to establish and maintain geomorphic characteristics of orogenic plateaus in tectonically active mountain belts.