1995年日本新泻北部M6.0地震及其由地震烈度和地下水地热异常分布所揭示的隐伏地震断层

1995年日本新泻北部M6.0地震发生在新泻地震空区的东部边缘.由于此次地震震源较浅(10 km),造成了55栋房屋倒塌、165栋房屋半倒.通过计算倾倒墓碑的地震矩,对本区地震烈度进行了分析,发现烈度6度区(据日本JMA度)为一覆盖面积6.1×1 km2,呈NNE-SSW向分布的条带,表明震中区的冲积平原下存在一条隐伏断层.震中区地下水的温度、电导率和Cl-浓度等异常区与呈线性分布的6度烈度区大致吻合,也有力地证明了震中区下面存在一条隐伏断层.这次地震可能是由高压型热水系沿隐伏活动断层喷溢引起.带着高温的高压热水降低了岩石的断裂强度,从而触发了地震.     

Practical kinetic modeling of petroleum generation and expulsion

Models for petroleum generation used by the industry are often limited by (a) sub-optimal laboratory pyrolysis methods for studying hydrocarbon generation, (b) over-simple models of petroleum generation, (c) inappropriate mathematical methods to derive kinetic parameters by fitting laboratory data, (d) primitive models of primary migration/expulsion and its coupling with petroleum generation, and (e) insufficient use of subsurface data to constrain the models. Problems (a), (b) and (c) lead to forced compensation effects between the activation energies and frequency factors of reaction kinetics that are wholly artificial, and which yield poor extrapolations to geological conditions. Simple switch or adsorption models of expulsion are insufficient to describe the residence time of species in source rocks. Yet, the residence time controls the thermal stresses to which the species are subjected for cracking to lighter species.     

Controls of hydrocarbon generation on the development of expulsion fractures in organic-rich shale: Based on the Paleogene Shahejie Formation in the Jiyang Depression,Bohai Bay Basin,East China

The development of expulsion fractures in organic-rich shale is closely related to hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from kerogen. Organic-rich shales from the upper part of the fourth member and the lower part of the third member of the Paleogene Shahejie Formation in the Jiyang Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, East China, are used as an example. Based on thin sections, SEM and thermal simulation experiments, the characteristics of hydrocarbon generation and the conditions supporting the development of expulsion fractures were explored. The key factors influencing these fractures include the presence of kerogens, their distribution along laminae and around particle boundaries, their exposure to heat and the build-up in pressure due to confinement by low permeability. The development of excess pore fluid pressures and intrinsic low rock fracture strength are the main influencing factors. Pressurization by rapid generation of hydrocarbon provides impetus for fracture initiation and cause bitumen to migrate quickly. The shale laminae results in distinctly lower fracture strength laminae-parallel than laminae-normal and this directs the formation of new fractures in the direction of weakness. When pore fluid pressure increases, maximum and minimum principal effective stresses decrease by different proportions with a larger reduction in the maximum principal effective stress. This increases the deviatoric stress and reduces the mean stress, thus driving the rock towards failure. Moreover, the tabular shape of the kerogen aids the generation of hydrocarbon and the initiation of expulsion fractures from the tip and edge. The resulting fractures extend along the laminae when the tensile strength is lower in the vertical direction than in the horizontal direction. Particle contact boundaries are weak and allow fractures to expand around particles and to curve as the stress/strength regime changes. When pore fluid pressure fields at different fracture tips overlap, fractures will propagate and interconnect, forming a network. This paper could provide us more detailed understanding of the forming processes of expulsion fractures and better comprehension about hydrocarbon expulsion (primary migration) in source rocks.     

Petroleum retention in the Mandal Formation,Central Graben,Norway

Upper Jurassic organic matter-rich, marine shales of the Mandal Formation have charged major petroleum accumulations in the North Sea Central Graben including the giant Ekofisk field which straddles the graben axis. Recent exploration of marginal basin positions such as the Mandal High area or the Søgne Basin has been less successful, raising the question as to whether charging is an issue, possibly related to high thermal stability of the source organic matter or delayed expulsion from source to carrier.The Mandal Formation is in part a very prolific source rock containing mainly Type II organic matter with <12 wt.-% TOC and HI < 645 mg HC/g TOC but Type III-influenced organofacies are also present. The formation is therefore to varying degrees heterogeneous. Here we show, using geochemical mass balance modelling, that the petroleum expulsion efficiency of the Mandal Formation is relatively low as compared to the Upper Jurassic Draupne Formation, the major source rock in the Viking Graben system. Using maturity series of different initial source quality from structurally distinct regions and encompassing depositional environments from proximal to distal facies, we have examined the relationship between free hydrocarbon retention and organic matter structure. The aromaticity of the original and matured petroleum precursors in the Mandal source rock plays a major role in its gas retention capacity as cross-linked monoaromatic rings act on the outer surface of kerogen as sorptive sites. However, oil retention is a function of both kerogen and involatile bitumen compositions. Slight variations in total petroleum retention capacities within the same kerogen yields suggest that texture of organic matter (e.g. organic porosity) could play a role as well.     

日本信浓川地震带超压热水系的喷溢作用与地震活动

信浓川地震带位于日本大地沟北部,地壳运动十分强烈,区内地震主要沿信浓川流域发生,并密集成带,大地构造上处于日本海板块向本州板块俯冲的边界线上。该地震带大多数地震为中强震,且均为浅源地震,地震发生伴随着明显的地下水前兆异常,震中区有强烈的超压热水系的喷溢活动。震中区地下水的温度、电导率以及主要地球化学成分呈线性异常分布,并与地震强弱或地震断裂规模有关,地震断层的规模控制了超压热水系喷溢活动的强度和规模。地震发生与超压热水系喷溢活动有着密切的成生关系,超压热水系喷溢活动使断层发生活动所需应力条件降低,诱发地震发生,同时断层活动为超压热水系向上喷溢提供通道。     

Etats de contrainte et cinématique de la chaîne rifaine (Maroc) du Tortonien à l’actuel

Résumé

L’histoire tectono-sédimentaire du Rif (Maroc) et de son Avant-pays, du Tortonien inférieur jusqu’à l’actuel, est contrôlée par des effets de deux phénomènes: la convergence de l’Afrique vers l’Europe et l’expulsion du Rif vers le SW.

Dans le détail, ces deux processus ne sont pas aussi tranchés, il peut y avoir passage d’un système à l’autre dans le temps et dans l’espace.

Les directions moyennes du raccourcissement dépendent de la prépondérance de l’un ou de l’autre.

Depuis le Pliocène, l’expulsion vers le SW est bloquée et de ce fait, seuls les effets de la convergence se font sentir. Ils se traduisent par une direction moyenne NW-SE à NS du raccourcissement.     

Gaseous hydrocarbons generated during pyrolysis of petroleum source rocks using unconventional grain-size: implications for natural gas composition

Open-system pyrolysis experiments were performed on a suite of immature to marginally mature source rocks to investigate the influence of kerogen type on primary gas composition and the effect of grain size on gas expulsion characteristics. The pyrolysis of rock powders confirmed that hydrogen-rich kerogens yielded wetter gases than did hydrogen-poor kerogens. Gases detected from the pyrolysis of rock chips were drier than those from powders of equivalent samples. This was due to two processes: the retention and secondary cracking of higher molecular weight pyrolysis products and the preferential expulsion of methane from the rock matrix. These two effects, one chemical the other physical, could be distinguished using a novel approach involving multi-step pyrolysis of rock chips followed by on-line crushing of the residues. The enrichment of methane in natural gas attributed, by earlier workers, to be a consequence of fractionation during secondary migration (post-expulsion) has been proven to be real also during expulsion from source rocks at least for pyrolysis conditions.     

Coal as a source rock for oil: a review

The geological debate about whether, and to what extent, humic coals have sourced oil is likely to continue for some time, despite some important advances in our knowledge of the processes involved. It is clear that not only liptinites, but also perhydrous vitrinites have the potential to generate hydrocarbon liquids in the course of natural coalification. Some liptinites, especially alginite, cutinite, and suberinite, contain a higher proportion of aliphatic moieties in their structure than other liptinites such as sporinite and resinite and are, therefore, more oil-prone. It is of potential value to be able to predict the several environments of deposition in which coals with high liptinite contents or containing perhydrous vitrinites may have been formed. Review of the distribution of oil-prone coals in time and space reveals that most are Jurassic–Tertiary with key examples from Australia, New Zealand, and Indonesia. Methods based both on experimental simulations and the examination of naturally matured samples have been used to determine the order of generation of hydrocarbons from different macerals. Results are not entirely consistent among the different approaches, and there is much overlap in the ranges of degradation, but it seems probable that in the natural environment vitrinites begin to generate early, followed by labile liptinites such as suberinite, then cutinite, sporinite, and, finally, alginite.Petroleum potential may be determined by experimental simulation of natural coalification or inferred through various micro-techniques, especially fluorescence and infrared (IR) spectroscopy, or bulk techniques such as elemental analysis and ¹³C NMR spectroscopy. The latter three techniques enable a measure of the polymethylene component of the coal, which now appears to be one of the best available approaches for determining petroleum potential. No method of experimental simulation of petroleum generation from coals is without criticism, and comparative results are highly variable. However, hydrous pyrolysis, confined pyrolysis, and forms of open-system hydrous pyrolysis approach acceptable simulations.Whether, and to what degree generated liquid hydrocarbons are expelled, has long been the central problem in ‘oil from coal’ studies. The structure of vitrinite was believed until recently to contain an interconnected microporous network in which generated oil would be contained until an expulsion threshold was attained. Recent studies show the pores are not interconnected. Combined with a dynamic model of pore generation, it now seems that expulsion of hydrocarbons is best explained by activated diffusion of molecules to maceral boundaries and ultimately by cleats and fractures to coal seam boundaries. The main reason for poor expulsion is the adsorption of oil on the organic macromolecule, which may be overcome (1) if coals are thin and interbedded with clastic sediments, or (2) if the coals are very hydrogen-rich and generate large quantities of oil.The existence of oil in vitrinite is attested to by solvent extractions, fluorescence properties, and by microscopic observations of oil and bitumen. Experimental simulation of expulsion of oil from coals has only recently been attempted. The relative timing of release of generated CO₂ and CH₄ could have considerable importance in promoting the expulsion of liquid hydrocarbons but the mechanism is unclear. As it is universally agreed that dispersed organic matter (DOM) in some shales readily generates and expels petroleum, it is curious that few consistent geochemical differences have been found between coal macerals and DOM in interbedded shales.Unambiguous evidence of expulsion from coals is limited, and in particular only a few commercial oil discoveries can be confidently correlated to coals. These include Upper Cretaceous Fruitland Formation coals in the USA, from which oil is produced; New Zealand Tertiary coals; and Middle Jurassic coals from the Danish North Sea. It is likely that coals have at least contributed to significant oil discoveries in the Gippsland Basin, Australia; in the Turpan Basin, China; and in the Kutei and Ardjuna basins in Indonesia, but this remains unproven. Early reports that early Jurassic coals in mid-Norway were a major source of the reservoired oils have been shown to be inaccurate.None of the proposed ‘rules of thumb’ for generation or expulsion of petroleum from coals seem particularly robust. Decisions on whether a particular coal is likely to have been an active source for oil should consider all available geological and geochemical information. The assumptions made in computational models should be well understood as it is likely with new understandings of processes involved that some of these assumptions will be difficult to sustain.     

海相碳酸盐岩成岩作用与排烃特征

与泥页岩以缓慢压实为主的成岩作用不同,碳酸盐岩的成岩以胶结和交代作用为主,并在浅埋处几乎失去其所有的原生孔隙和沉积水。碳酸盐岩在埋藏条件下处于近完全封闭的压实流环境中,深埋和地温升高除形成小规模的压溶作用(如缝合线)外,其他类型的成岩作用很微弱。在进入有机质生烃的门限深度后,低丰度有机质虽可生成一定数量的烃类,但碳酸盐岩不像泥岩那样可以脱出大量压实水,烃的运移既无"载体",又无异常高压作为动力和造缝条件,烃类很难大规模运移。在其后的成岩作用中,烃类或分散于封闭的晶间孔隙中,或与矿物结合形成晶包有机质和包裹体有机质,造成碳酸盐岩含烃率常常高于泥页岩。