Giant submarine landslide grooves in the Neoproterozoic/Lower Cambrian Phe Formation, northwest Himalaya: Mechanisms of formation and palaeogeographic implications

Giant groove casts have been found in the upper Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian Phe Formation (Haimanta Group), a siliciclastic sandstone/shale succession in the Tethyan Zone of the Higher Himalaya tectonic unit. The grooves are among the largest linear erosion structures related to submarine mass-movements observed in the geologic record. They are up to 4 m wide, about 0.2 m deep and can be traced for more than 35 m without changing their character. The grooves are straight, subparallel to cross-cutting striations with shallow semi-circular cross-sections and well-defined superimposed minor ridges and grooves. Groove casts exist on the soles of several sandstone beds within a 73 m thick logged section, commonly associated with flute casts. Their characteristics were compared with several other types of ancient and modern submarine linear erosion structures. A sand-rich, non-channelized basin floor depositional environment is inferred from the lithofacies, the combination of sedimentary structures, the lack of coarse-grained pebbly facies, the lateral continuity of beds, and the lack of channel structures. The grooves probably formed by laminar debris flows/concentrated density flows dragging blocks of already lithified sediment across the basin floor. When the bedding is structurally rotated back to horizontal, the groove casts show consistent North–South oriented palaeocurrent trends, with South-directed palaeocurrent directions indicated by flute casts. These palaeocurrent orientations contrast with previous palaeogeographic reconstructions of this area, which propose sediment delivery from the South. We therefore suggest a new “double provenance” model for the spatial relationship of late Proterozoic to Early Cambrian strata of the Himalaya, in which Lesser and Tethyan Himalayan age-equivalent sediment was deposited in a connected basin, where the former received detritus from the South, and the latter from a hitherto unknown source in the North. One possible candidate for this northern source is the South China Block and an associated Neoproterozoic volcanic arc.     

Structural characterization of deep-water deposits in a foreland basin, Silla Syncline (Chilean Patagonia), with applications to depositional processes

Based on our detailed structural characterization, we examine possible relationships between thrust faults and strike-slip faults and thrust-cored folds and depositional units in the Silla Syncline, a 4 km wide fold composed of fine-grained mudstone, coarse sandstone and conglomerate deposits of the Cerro Toro Formation in the Magallanes foreland basin, Chilean Patagonia. The syncline is bounded on its western flank by an asymmetric anticline and on its eastern flank by a broad zone of thrust faults and associated folds, which are oriented sub-parallel to the syncline axis. Deposition of the coarse-grained units of the Silla Syncline appears to have taken place in this structurally defined trough controlled primarily by thrust fault related growth structures flanking the syncline.The syncline and surrounding area have also been deformed by two sets of strike-slip faults, one right-lateral and one left-lateral. The strike-slip and thrust faulting operated contemporaneously for much of their active periods, although it appears that thrust faulting, confined within the fine-grained units, initiated slightly earlier than strike-slip faulting. In addition, younger igneous intrusions at high angle to bedding generally localize along the strike-slip faults. The cross-cutting relationships among the intrusions, strike-slip faults, and flexural slip faults show that all these structures were active during the same period, which extends beyond mid-Miocene.These conclusions support the premise that structures in deep-water sediments are important for understanding not only the deformation of a foreland basin, but also its depositional architecture.     

Sedimentation settings of the Vendian Vanavara formation,the Siberian platform

A model of sedimentation settings is elaborated for siliciclastic deposits of the Vendian Vanavara Formation, the Katanga saddle, inner areas of the Siberian platform. Four lithologic complexes are distinguished in the formation. The lower complex is composed of proluvial continental deposits exemplifying a dejection cone of ephemeral streams. Its eroded surface is overlain by second complex largely represented by sandstones of coastal zone, which grade upward into siltstones and shales of deeper sedimentation settings (third complex). Sea transgression advanced in northeastern direction. The fourth complex resting with scouring on the third one was deposited in settings of a spacious shallow-water sea zone: in a tidal flat, sand shoals and islands. Sedimentological data are used to correlate more precisely the Vendian siliciclastic deposits of the Katanga saddle and northeastern Nepa-Botuoba anteclise, and to verify subdivision of the Vanavara Formation into subformations and character of its boundary with the overlying Oskoba Formation.     

福清湾北部及其以东近岸海域沉积环境和沉积特征

本文对福清湾北部及其以东近岸海域的地质地貌，潮流和波浪等沉积环境因素，以及对沉积物和悬浮泥沙的粒度，矿物特征进行研究，认为福清湾为溺谷型的半封闭潮汐汊道海湾存在着较大的潮差和潮流流速，沉积物沿潮流方向呈东粗西细和岸边细、向海变粗的潮流分异特征，潮流控制着沉积物的布局，而属于潮控的浅海沉积环境。     

松辽平原区荒漠化形成与发展的地质基础

利用卫星数据,结合实地地质调查、光释光（Optically Stimulated Luminecence, OSL）测年及孢粉数据,从地层、新构造和沉积环境等角度阐述了松辽平原晚更新世晚期湖积环境的形成与变化,提出了松辽平原晚更新世晚期湖积环境或湖积物质是区内荒漠化形成与发展的地质基础。     

The petroleum generation potential and effective oil window of humic coals related to coal composition and age

A worldwide data set of more than 500 humic coals from the major coal-forming geological periods has been used to analyse the evolution in the remaining (Hydrogen Index, HI) and total (Quality Index, QI) generation potentials with increasing thermal maturity and the ‘effective oil window’ (‘oil expulsion window’). All samples describe HI and QI bands that are broad at low maturities and that gradually narrow with increasing maturity. The oil generation potential is completely exhausted at a vitrinite reflectance of 2.0–2.2%R_o or T_max of 500–510 °C. The initial large variation in the generation potential is related to the original depositional conditions, particularly the degree of marine influence and the formation of hydrogen-enriched vitrinite, as suggested by increased sulphur and hydrogen contents. During initial thermal maturation the HI increases to a maximum value, HI_max. Similarly, QI increases to a maximum value, QI_max. This increase in HI and QI is related to the formation of an additional generation potential in the coal structure. The decline in QI with further maturation is indicating onset of initial oil expulsion, which precedes efficient expulsion. Liquid petroleum generation from humic coals is thus a complex, three-phase process: (i) onset of petroleum generation, (ii) petroleum build-up in the coal, and (iii) initial oil expulsion followed by efficient oil expulsion (corresponding to the effective oil window). Efficient oil expulsion is indicated by a decline in the Bitumen Index (BI) when plotted against vitrinite reflectance or T_max. This means that in humic coals the vitrinite reflectance or T_max values at which onset of petroleum generation occurs cannot be used to establish the start of the effective oil window. The start of the effective oil window occurs within the vitrinite reflectance range 0.85–1.05%R_o or T_max range 440–455 °C and the oil window extends to 1.5–2.0%R_o or 470–510 °C. For general use, an effective oil window is proposed to occur from 0.85 to 1.7%R_o or from 440 to 490 °C. Specific ranges for HI_max and the effective oil window can be defined for Cenozoic, Jurassic, Permian, and Carboniferous coals. Cenozoic coals reach the highest HI_max values (220–370 mg HC/g TOC), and for the most oil-prone Cenozoic coals the effective oil window may possibly range from 0.65 to 2.0%R_o or 430 to 510 °C. In contrast, the most oil-prone Jurassic, Permian and Carboniferous coals reach the expulsion threshold at a vitrinite reflectance of 0.85–0.9%R_o or T_max of 440–445 °C.     

Factors influencing the presence or absence of tributary-junction fans in the Iberian Range, Spain

This paper analyses the factors which influence the presence or absence of tributary-junction fans in the Iberian Range, northern Spain. Two valleys were selected, both characterised by wide variations in lithology, altitude, land use and plant cover. Two groups of factors were studied: those related to the internal characteristics of the drainage basins, which particularly control sediment generation; and those related to the characteristics of the depositional area which control accommodation space and main river power. Among the internal factors, the development of alluvial fans was related to: (i) the capacity of the basin to yield large volumes of sediment, (ii) the occurrence of intense human pressure until recent times, a good indicator of sediment yield, and (iii) the capacity of the basin to quickly increase discharge during rainstorms (discharge density and torrentiality). It is suggested that the areas that were intensively cultivated in the past, and have therefore been affected by intense erosion, have played a decisive role on the development of alluvial fans. This would imply that many of these alluvial fans have a relatively recent origin, perhaps related to the beginning of a widespread deforestation. The basins without alluvial fans are characterised by relatively steep hillslope gradients (that is, slopes that never were subjected to historical cultivation), low drainage densities and dense forest and shrub cover, mostly coinciding with high altitude basins composed of quartzite and shale bedrocks. Regarding the external factors, the shape, size and longitudinal gradient of the main river to which the fans are tributary are the most relevant conditioning factors determining the development of alluvial fans.     

Size of a debris flow deposition: model experiment approach

 The prediction of the dangerous extent of a debris flow deposition is of vital importance, but difficult to achieve. Precise prediction of the depositional boundary of a debris flow event is impossible, but the size of a debris flow deposition could provide some estimates of the area, length, width, and thickness of a debris flow deposition. Based on in situ depositional experiments performed on a debris flow creek just after debris flows, a rule of thumb expressed by a group of equations containing the multiple-variate nonlinear functions is proposed in this paper. The interrelationships between the size and the causation also are discussed, and some empirical formulae to calculate the causative parameters for different regions are presented. Received: 24 April 1995 · Accepted: 21 June 1995     

四川松潘马拉墩晚三叠世侏倭组的遗迹化石及沉积环境

四川松潘马拉墩晚三叠世侏倭组首次发现大量遗迹化石。本文根据不同遗迹属在不同层位中的相对丰度建立了两个遗迹组合，即Ｍｅｇａｇｒａｐｔｏｎ－Ａｒｔｈｒｏｐｈｙｃｕｓ组合及Ｎｅｏｎｅｒｅｉｔｅｓ－Ｐｈｙｃｏｓｉｐｈｏｎ组合，大致相当于Ｓｅｉｌａｃｈｅｒ（１９６７）［１］的Ｎｅｒｅｉｔｅｓ遗迹相．同时利用遗迹化石及沉积特点进行了沉积环境分析，认为侏倭组的沉积环境为大陆斜坡下部至盆地边缘。     

Environmental and legal aspects of karst areas

 Environmental impacts on karst settings are common as they are more sensitive than those of other rock terrains. Regulatory procedures that are effective in other rock terrains are not necessarily applicable to karst settings. Development and exploitation by man that affect the karst hydrology regime can trigger catastrophic events and result in numerous legal actions where the effects of changes go beyond property boundaries. A great variety of regulations and examples of litigation exist for karst areas. Received: 25 October 1994 · Accepted: 17 October 1995