Raindrop impact and water flow on the vegetative surfaces of trees and the effects on stemflow and throughfall generation

The physical processes of raindrop impact and water flow on the leaves and branches of selected tropical tree species were examined under laboratory conditions using simulated rainfall. Inclined branches were found to be particularly efficient in detaining impacting water droplets. This efficiency in raindrop detention increases linearly as a function of branch inclination on branches that are initially dry. On branches that have been thoroughly wetted, this increase in raindrop detention with branch inclination is best expressed as a logarithmic function. At branch inclinations of 60° above the horizontal, the quantity of branchflow was found to be > 80 per cent of the total quantity of impacting rainfall, indicating that < 20 per cent was lost to rainsplash. The strong positive relationship between branchflow and branch inclination explains why trees with large projected areas of steeply inclined upthrust branches have significant quantities of intercepted water draining from their branches and trunks under heavy rainfall conditions. This drainage from the woody frame of trees influences surficial processes by generating both stemflow and large throughfall droplets.     

亚热带马尾松人工林的降雨截留作用

本文通过分别实测降雨过程中林外降雨、林内降雨及树干截流的变化,分析了不同降雨量、降雨持续时间、前期降雨等因素的影响,讨论了马尾松人工林地内雨量分布的变化特点,并提出了计算模式。统计分析结果表明,林内雨和树干流只有当降雨分别到达1.6mm和4.32mm的情况下才出现,其总量分别占林外降雨的75％和4.3％,并以面源和点源的形式输入流域。此外,还阐述了降雨过程中林地内营养元素的输入及循环过程的特点。     

Hydrogeochemical effects of secondary forest in Guangxi Nongla karst areas in China

Rainfall, throughfall, stemflow and spring were studied in a secondary forest during a wet season from April to August in 2006. Some of the chemicals in throughfall, stemflow and spring were increased in contrast with incident rainfall. Specifically, Cl⁻, HCO₃ ⁻, Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ were leached negatively in throughfall, but K⁺ and Mg²⁺ were leached positively. In stemflow, Cl⁻ and Na⁺ were leached negatively, the others were leached positively and their concentrations were higher than those in throughfall. Total carbon, organic carbon and inorganic carbon in throughfall and stemflow were increased as rainfall went through the secondary forest. The concentration of free CO₂ in rainfall was lower than both, throughfall and stemflow; the relationship between total acidity and free CO₂ was linear. pH of throughfall and stemflow , such as maximum, minimum and mean, were lower than that of rainfall and the extent of pH in spring was changed minimally. We came to a conclusion that rainfall via the secondary forest can lead to further erosion, accelerate the biogeochemical cycle in epikarst zone, enhance the effective state of alkali elements in the soil, supply vegetation with more nutrients and advance vegetation’s growth and succession, which are reasonably sufficient to form a stable karst ecosystem.     

Simulation of the size distribution and erosivity of raindrops and throughfall drops

This paper presents a model that simulates the size distribution and erosivity of raindrops and throughfall drops. It utilizes existing models of rainfall drop size distribution and fall velocity and combines them with newly collated evidence of throughfall drop size distributions. A sensitivity analysis reveals that the model is sensitive to parameters that are easily measured or estimated: rainfall intensity, the mean volume drop diameter of the intercepted throughfall, canopy cover, and canopy height. The results of the model may be used at two levels. Firstly, to calculate specifically the size and fall velocity of individual drops, parameters that are needed in studies examining the response of soil surfaces to forces applied by rainfall. Secondly, to produce erosivity indices, based on rainfall intensity but which take account of the effects of a vegetation canopy. The paper shows that while the kinetic energy of rainfall (E(0), J mm^?1 m^?2) may be calculated from an equation of the familiar form: the kinetic energy of throughfall under any canopy may be calculated by combining this equation with another that relates the energy of drops under a 100 per cent canopy cover (E(100)) and the canopy height: .     

Partitioning of rainfall in a eucalypt forest and pine plantation in southeastern australia: IV the relationship of interception and canopy storage capacity,the interception of these forests,and the effect on interception of thinning the pine plantation

A study of partitioning of rainfall into throughfall, stemflow, and interception was conducted in a dry sclerophyll eucalypt forest and an adjacent pine plantation over a period of seven years, on a rainfall event basis. The following three issues are discussed: (1) the relationship between canopy storage capacity and interception of continuous events, (2) interception, throughfall, and stemflow, and (3) the effect on interception of thinning the pine plantation.

• 1 The canopy storage capacity/interception interaction for the eucalypt forest was assessed by comparing a gravimetric estimate of canopy storage capacity with interception. The maximum possible value for canopy storage capacity was found to be a small proportion of interception for events of all sizes. This suggests that evaporation of intercepted water during the continuous events was responsible for most of the interception. This ‘within event’ evaporation appears to be responsible also for the net rainfall/gross rainfall estimate of canopy storage capacity being four times the gravimetric value. For the pines the regression estimate was more closely related to interception.
• 2 Interception, throughfall, and stemflow of these forests were measured for four years. Data are presented for each year with overall average interception being 11-4 per cent of precipitation for the eucalypt forest and 18-3 per cent for the pine plantation. Topography and rainfall event type are considered in the comparison.

Species composition and tree type are considered when comparing these results with published studies from similar forest types in southeastern Australia. The periodic (annual) variations of interception in this and the other studies makes comparison difficult.

• 3 The effect of thinning on the throughfall, stemflow, and interception in a Pinus radiata plantation is examined. Throughfall increased, interception decreased but not in proportion to the removed biomass; stemflow decreased on an area basis, but increased on a per tree basis. A positive relationshiip is established between interception and stemflow on the thinned plantation but not in the unthinned. Reasons for this are suggested. The results are compared to those reported from similar experiments in other forests.
• 4 The periodic variations in interception and errors inherent in its estimation suggest that caution should be exercised when using average interception figures in water balance studies.

     

Stemflow and throughfall in a tropical dry forest

The rainfall received by a small plot of tropical deciduous forest on sand dunes in Veracruz, Mexico, was partitioned into stemflow and throughfall components to determine whether funnelling by stemflow could reduce soil leaching by transmitting large volumes of water through vertical soil pathways beneath each stem. Although soil infiltration capacities were high, only a very small proportion of incoming rainfall was funnelled by canopy stems. This is attributed to the widely-branched morphology of mature trees. Smaller trees and shrubs were more effective funnellers of rainfall, and a crude estimate of the magnitude of stemflow in the understorey stratum in one rain event suggested a contribution approximately ten times that of canopy stemflow. However, even if augmented by the understorey stratum in this way, total stemflow is unlikely to have exceeded 10 per cent of gross precipitation, implying that it does not represent an important leaching-avoidance mechanism in this forest.     

基于不同郁闭度的青海云杉冠层截留特征研究

祁连山区为石羊河、黑河和疏勒河等内陆河流域的主要水源涵养区域,青海云杉作为祁连山区水源涵养林的主要建群种,对流域尺度的水文过程起到了重要的作用。很多学者对该地区的青海云杉冠层截留特征进行了研究,但是在进行集雨器布设的时候多采用随机或者规则采样方法,两种方法由于没有考虑到冠层结构的影响,所以不易具有很好的代表性。试图采用一种新的布设雨量筒的方法:即根据雨量筒上方冠层的郁闭度来确定雨量筒的布设位置,使其大致能够在郁闭度区间内均匀分布。同时在实验样地内还采用了规则采样方法布设了集雨槽,用来做对比分析。为了得到冠层郁闭度,实验采用遥感图像处理软件ENVI来对普通数码相机采集的冠层图像进行处理。利用数理统计原理和数学模型,对观测期间的34组降雨数据进行了综合分析,并且和规则格网采样的结果进行了对比。结果表明:林内的穿透降雨和郁闭度之间呈现非线性关系;平均林内穿透降雨量随降雨量的增加而增加,二者之间呈现良好的线性关系;在一定的降雨量范围内林冠截留量随降雨量的增加而增加,反之,林冠截留量减少;青海云杉林冠层的总截留降水率为22.2%;根据郁闭度来确定雨量筒的布设位置是可行的。     

Partitioning of rainfall in a eucalypt forest and pine plantation in southeastern australia: I throughfall measurement in a eucalypt forest: Effect of method and species composition

A seven year event-based study partitioning of rainfall into throughfall, stemflow, and interception was conducted in a dry sclerophyll eucalypt forest and a Pinus radiata plantation. Resulting information will be of use for process modelling. Stemflow was influenced by event type, rain angle having a major effect; and the yields of the different species are compared. Tree characteristics that influenced stemflow yields are outlined and discussed. The canopy storage capacity of the eucalypt forest was determined and the influence of species composition is shown. The likely influence of climate variations is discussed. The canopy storage capacity is compared to the interception values estimated for continuous events of various sizes. The interception of the eucalypt forest and the pine plantation are compared on event basis for event size classes and on an annual basis. The comparative interceptions for continuous events are also discussed, while the effect of thinning the pine plantation on throughfall, stemflow, and interception is shown. The hydrological consequences of this study are: more informed judgment can be made about techniques for measurement of throughfall, tree structural characteristics (species related) can more adequately be considered when selecting trees for measurement of stemflow, and the stemflow yields can in some cases be better understood from the information about effect of event type. This paper deals with the influence of measurement method, species composition, and tree characteristics on the estimation of throughfall in the eucalypt forest. The site is near Canberra, lat. 35°S, 145°E, with annual rainfall about 650 mm. Two methods of measuring throughfall are compared: randomly placed, 200 mm cylindrical gauges (standard) and 50 mm square opening wedge type gauges (plastic), and randomly placed 5 × 0–22 m troughs. Despite the high placement density (150 to 225 ha^?1), throughfall estimates from gauges has high variance and consistently underestimated those of the troughs, which had a total opening equivalent to 2325 raingauges (200 mm diameter) per hectare. Local concentration of stemflow into drip points provided by detaching bark pieces of one smooth barked species, Eucalyptus mannifera, is believed to be the principal cause of the lower collection and greater variance of the gauges. The low leaf area index (1–3) and large wood area of the forest together with a pendulous vertical habit of the leaves also contributed. The presence of E. mannifera is shown to substantially affect the relative values of throughfall as measured by troughs and gauges. The plastic receivers were found to underestimate rainfall or throughfall relative to the standard gauges, particularly for fine drop rainfall in multiperiod events.     

Slope form,erosion, and hydrology in some Belizean Karst depressions

Detailed slope surveys were made in seven karst depressions in central Belize. Four major slope types were identified—inclined bedrock slopes, staircases, broken cliffs, and talus slopes. Depression bases are dominated by inclined bedrock and talus slopes, midslopes largely by broken cliffs, and near hill summits by staircases. Erosional weight loss tablets deployed in 1975–1981 and 1980–1985 show significant variations between the different slope types, with a maximum near depression bases. Throughfall measurements in 1980 and 1985 show that midslope and near-summit sites receive 10–20 per cent less water than do depression bases. Surface runoff, monitored using coloured dyes, is of limited distance and duration but still contributes to surface corrosion and morphology. Vadose seepage, monitored by tracing water from the surface to a small, shallow cave, is rapid, and subsurface corrosion exceeds that at the surface. Overall, near-surface form and process are consistent with hydrological models of depression development (Williams, 1983, 1985) and surface processes contribute significantly to overall depression form. Moreover, surface activity complements that in the subcutaneous zone by directing recharge into the epikarstic aquifer.     

Storage of water on vegetation under simulated rainfall of varying intensity

Little is understood about how storage of water on forest canopies varies during rainfall, even though storage changes intensity of throughfall and thus affects a variety of hydrological processes. In this study, laboratory rainfall simulation experiments using varying intensities yielded a better understanding of dynamics of rainfall storage on woody vegetation. Branches of eight species generally retained more water at higher rainfall intensities than at lower intensities, but incremental storage gains decreased as rainfall intensity increased. Leaf area was the best predictor of storage, especially for broadleaved species. Stored water ranged from 0.05 to 1.1 mm effective depth on leaves, depending on species and rainfall intensity. Storage was generally about 0.2 mm greater at rainfall intensity 420 mm h⁻¹ than at 20 mm h⁻¹. Needle-leaved branches generally retained more water per leaf area than did branches from broadleaved species, but branches that stored most at lower rainfall intensities tended to accumulate less additional storage at higher intensities. A simple nonlinear model was capable of predicting both magnitude (good model performance) and temporal scale (fair model performance) of storage responses to varying rainfall intensities. We hypothesize a conceptual mechanical model of canopy storage during rainfall that includes the concepts of static and dynamic storage to account for intensity-driven changes in storage. Scaling up observations to the canopy scale using LAI resulted in an estimate of canopy storage that generally agrees with estimates by traditional methods.