WORLD DELTAS AND THEIR EVOLUTION

In August 1998, an international symposium on the world deltas was held in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. This symposium attracted discussion about more than 25 deltas from around the world with emphasis placed on those that are most densely populated and impacted by humans. Keynote papers printed details about the physical, biological, engineering and socioeconomic aspects of six deltas including the Mississippi, Nile, Ganges-Brahmaputra, Rhine-Meuse, Changjiang and Po. The main purpose of this symposium was to inform scientists, engineers and decision-makers about information that is currently available and to provide them a basis for working in such environments.     

雅鲁藏布江深厚砂砾卵石覆盖层钻探工艺

为了开展雅鲁藏布江流域综合规划及其水资源开发利用与保护专题研究工作,在雅鲁藏布江干流里龙坝址和本宗坝址共布置了4个200~300 m深的钻孔。主要通过在西藏高寒地区4个深厚覆盖层钻孔的成功实施经验,对西藏高寒地区深厚覆盖层勘探成孔工艺与技术进行研究探讨。     

The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in Bangladesh: basin denudation and sedimentation

Every year the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in Bangladesh transport 316 and 721 million tonnes of sediment, respectively. These high loads of suspended sediment reflect the very high rate of denudation in their drainage basins. The average mechanical denudation rate for the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins together is 365 mm 10³ yr⁻¹. However, the rate is higher in the Brahmaputra Basin than that in the Ganges Basin. Several factors, including mean trunk channel gradient, relief ratio, runoff, basin lithology and recurring earthquakes are responsible for these high denudation rates. Of the total suspended sediment load (i.e. 1037 million tonnes) transported by these rivers, only 525 million tonnes (c. 51% of the total load) are delivered to the coastal area of Bangladesh and the remaining 512 million tonnes are deposited within the lower basin, offsetting the subsidence. Of the deposited load, about 289 million tonnes (about 28% of the total load) are deposited on the floodplains of these rivers. The remaining 223 million tonnes (about 21% of the total load) are deposited within the river channels, resulting in aggradation of the channel bed at an average rate of about 3·9 cm yr⁻¹. Although the Brahmaputra transports a higher sediment load than the Ganges, the channel bed aggradation rate is much higher for the Ganges. This study also documents a wide range of interannual, seasonal and daily variation in suspended sediment transport and water discharge. Interannual variation in sediment deposition within the basin is also suggested. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于事件数据的雅鲁藏布江-布拉马普特拉河国际河流安全分析

雅鲁藏布江-布拉马普特拉河是我国重要的国际河流,近年的水电开发活动,使其日益成为国内外国际河流研究关注的热点。本文基于国际关系研究中常用的事件分析方法,在构建事件数据库的基础上,从事件类型、涉及国别、事件频率、影响程度四方面进行分析,结果表明：水资源分配问题是雅江流域主要问题;中国在雅江国际河流问题上与下游国家的联系主要以与印度或孟加拉国的双边联系为主;随着时间的推移,雅江冲突与合作事件的频率都表现出增加的趋势;雅江围绕国际河流的国际关系局势大致可分为4个阶段：60年代的平稳阶段、70年代的紧张阶段、80年代的沉寂阶段、90年代后的持续关注阶段。     

Collision of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta with the Burma Arc: Implications for earthquake hazard

We take a fresh look at the topography, structure and seismicity of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta (GBD)–Burma Arc collision zone in order to reevaluate the nature of the accretionary prism and its seismic potential. The GBD, the world's largest delta, has been built from sediments eroded from the Himalayan collision. These sediments prograded the continental margin of the Indian subcontinent by  400 km, forming a huge sediment pile that is now entering the Burma Arc subduction zone. Subduction of oceanic lithosphere with > 20 km sediment thickness is fueling the growth of an active accretionary prism exposed on land. The prism starts at an apex south of the GBD shelf edge at  18°N and widens northwards to form a broad triangle that may be up to 300 km wide at its northern limit. The front of the prism is blind, buried by the GBD sediments. Thus, the deformation front extends 100 km west of the surface fold belt beneath the Comilla Tract, which is uplifted by 3–4 m relative to the delta. This accretionary prism has the lowest surface slope of any active subduction zone. The gradient of the prism is only  0.1°, rising to  0.5° in the forearc region to the east. This low slope is consistent with the high level of overpressure found in the subsurface, and indicates a very weak detachment. Since its onset, the collision of the GBD and Burma Arc has expanded westward at  2 cm/yr, and propagated southwards at  5 cm/yr. Seismic hazard in the GBD is largely unknown. Intermediate-size earthquakes are associated with surface ruptures and fold growth in the external part of the prism. However, the possibility of large subduction ruptures has not been accounted for, and may be higher than generally believed. Although sediment-clogged systems are thought to not be able to sustain the stresses and strain-weakening behavior required for great earthquakes, some of the largest known earthquakes have occurred in heavily-sedimented subduction zones. A large earthquake in 1762 ruptured  250 km of the southern part of the GBD, suggesting large earthquakes are possible there. A large, but poorly documented earthquake in 1548 damaged population centers at the northern and southern ends of the onshore prism, and is the only known candidate for a rupture of the plate boundary along the subaerial part of the GBD–Burma Arc collision zone.     

晚中新世以来孟加拉-尼科巴扇跷跷板式沉积转换及其源-汇成因机制

利用沉积转换事件再造关键变革期的构造活动和气候演变是源-汇系统研究的新动向和切入点。新生代以来,印度大陆与亚洲大陆的汇聚隆升以及喜马拉雅-青藏高原的剥蚀、向孟加拉湾的物质输入,形成了当今世界上最大的源-汇系统(喜马拉雅-孟加拉湾源-汇系统)。利用3D地震数据和IODP 354与362航次获取的碎屑锆石数据揭示了晚中新世以来孟加拉-尼科巴扇沉积转换事件及其源-汇成因机制。研究认为尼科巴扇和孟加拉扇经历了此消彼长的沉积建造过程:尼科巴扇经历了“晚中新世快速进积→上新世缓慢建造→第四纪相对静止”的建造过程;而孟加拉扇经历了“晚中新世相对静止→上新世缓慢建造→第四纪快速进积”的沉积建造过程。喜马拉雅-孟加拉湾源-汇系统碎屑锆石年龄核密度统计结果显示:晚中新世以来,指示古布拉马普特拉河迁移演化路径的60~0 Ma碎屑锆石在若开-尼科巴扇呈现出逐渐减少的变化趋势,而在孟加拉扇呈现出逐渐增多的变化趋势。这一碎屑锆石年龄核密度变化特征表明:(1)在晚中新世,古布拉马普特拉河主沉积物分散路径靠近孟加拉湾东部一侧发育且大量碎屑颗粒向尼科巴扇搬运分散,形成“快速进积的尼科巴扇和相对静止的孟加拉扇”;(2)在上新世初,青藏高原隆升所诱发的西隆高原抬升使古布拉马普特拉河向西迁移分流,在古西隆高原北缘Mikir山附近分流为东西两支,东支向尼科巴扇搬运分散的碎屑颗粒开始减少,而西支向孟加拉扇搬运分散的碎屑颗粒开始增多,形成“以缓慢建造为演化特征的尼科巴-孟加拉扇”;(3)在第四纪初,印度板块-亚洲板块最强碰撞造成青藏高原最强隆升并达到最大海拔高度,古布拉马普特拉河东支袭夺废弃,向尼科巴扇卸载的沉积物相应显著减少,而古布拉马普特拉河西支与恒河并流后向孟加拉扇卸载的沉积物亦相应显著增加,形成“相对静止的尼科巴扇和快速进积的孟加拉扇”。由此可见,尼科巴-孟加拉扇“此消彼长的跷跷板式沉积转换事件”是古布拉马普特拉河沉积物分散路径迁移演化的源-汇响应;其在上新世-第四纪之交发生了一起最为显著的沉积转换事件,其是上新世晚期印度板块-亚洲板块碰撞的源-汇响应。     

Morpho‐sedimentary records at the Brahmaputra River exit,NE Himalaya: climate–tectonic interplay during the Late Pleistocene–Holocene

Morphological and sedimentary records at the exit of Brahmaputra River at Pasighat in the NE Himalaya inform about the climate–tectonic interplay during the past ca. 15 ka. The geomorphology of the area comprises (1) fan terrace T₃, (2) a high‐angle fan (3) terrace T₂, (4) terrace T₁ and (5) a low‐angle fan. Geomorphic consideration suggests that the fan terrace T₃ and high‐angle fans are the oldest units and were coeval. The low‐angle fan is the youngest geomorphic unit. Sedimentological studies and optically stimulated luminescence chronology suggest that (i) fan terrace T₃ formed between 13 and 10.5 ka and comprised multiple events of debris flows separated by the aggradation as channel bars in a braided river environment; (ii) the high‐angle fan formed during 15–10 ka and comprises channel bar aggradation in braided river conditions; (iii) terrace T₂ formed during 10–8 ka due to aggradation in a braided channel environment with lesser events of debris flows; (iv) terrace T₁ formed during <7 and 3 ka took place as bars of the braided river. Sudden coarsening of the sediment indicated a tectonic rejuvenation in the provenance region between 7 and 3 ka; and (v) the low‐angle fans dated to <3 ka formed due to aggradation in a small tributary joining the Brahmaputra River. This implies a phase when the main channel of the Brahmaputra did not flood regularly and the tributaries were actively aggrading. The sedimentation style and incision of these geomorphic units responded to contemporary climatic changes and uplift in the Siwalik range along the Himalayan Frontal Fault. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fluvial process and morphology of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India

The Brahmaputra River finds its origin in the Chema Yundung glacier of Tibet and flows through India and Bangladesh. The slope of the river decreases suddenly in front of the Himalayas and results in the deposition of sediment and a braided channel pattern. It flows through Assam, India, along a valley comprising its own Recent alluvium. In Assam the basin receives 300 cm mean annual rainfall, 66–85% of which occurs in the monsoon period from June through September. Mean annual discharge at Pandu for 1955–1990 is 16,682.24 m³ s^{− 1}. Average monthly discharge is highest in July (19%) and lowest in February (2%). Most hydrographs exhibit multiple flood peaks occurring at different times from June to September. The mean annual suspended sediment load is 402 million tons and average monthly sediment discharge is highest in June (19.05%) and lowest in January (1.02%). The bed load at Pandu was found to be 5–15% of the total load of the river. Three kinds of major geomorphic units are found in the basin. The river bed of the Brahmaputra shows four topographic levels, with increasing height and vegetation. The single first order primary channels of this braided river split into two or more smaller second order channels separated by bars and islands. The second order channels are of three kinds. The maximum length and width of the bars in the area under study are 18.43 km and 6.17 km, respectively. The Brahmaputra channel is characterised by mid-channel bars, side bars, tributary mouth bars and unit bars. The geometry of meandering tributary rivers shows that the relationship between meander wavelength and bend radius is most linear. The Brahmaputra had been undergoing overall aggradation by about 16 cm during 1971 to 1979. The channel of the Brahmaputra River has been migrating because of channel widening and avulsion. The meandering tributaries change because of neck cut-off and progressive shifting at the meander bends. The braiding index of the Brahmaputra has been increasing from 6.11 in 1912–1928 to 8.33 in 1996. During the twentieth century, the total amount of bank area lost from erosion was 868 km². Maximum rate of shift of the north bank to south resulting in erosion was 227.5 m/year and maximum rate of shift of the south bank to north resulting in accretion was 331.56 m/year. Shear failure of upper bank and liquefaction of clayey-silt materials are two main causes of bank erosion.     

The great 1950 Assam Earthquake revisited: Field evidences of liquefaction and search for paleoseismic events

Extensive field investigations were carried out for the first time in the meizoseismal area of the great 1950 Assam Earthquake aimed at exploring the paleoseismic history of the NE Indian region through documentation of liquefaction features and radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dating. Trenching at more than a dozen locations along the Burhi Dihing River valley and within the alluvial fans adjoining the Brahmaputra and Dibang Rivers resulted in the identification of more than a dozen very prominent liquefaction features (sand dykes, sills, sand blows etc.) as evidences of large to great earthquakes. ¹⁴C dating of the organic material associated with some of the features indicates a paleoseismic record of about 500 yrs archived by the sediments in this region. Compelling geological evidence(s) of the great 1950 earthquake are well constrained by ¹⁴C dating. Out of the two historically reported seismic events (1548 AD and 1697 AD) from this region, ¹⁴C dating could constrain the 1548 AD event though not distinctly. Further studies using combined ¹⁴C and OSL dating may better constrain the seismo-chronology of the study region.