Mais comment s'écoule donc un glacier ? Aperçu historique

Ice and snow have often helped physicists understand the world. On the contrary it has taken them a very long time to understand the flow of the glaciers. Naturalists only began to take an interest in glaciers at the beginning of the 19th century during the last phase of glacier advances. When the glacier flow from the upslope direction became obvious, it was then necessary to understand how it flowed. It was only in 1840, the year of the Antarctica ice sheet discovery by Dumont d'Urville, that two books laid the basis for the future field of glaciology: one by Agassiz on the ice age and glaciers, the other one by canon Rendu on glacier theory. During the 19th century, ice flow theories, adopted by most of the leading scientists, were based on melting/refreezing processes. Even though the word ‘fluid’ was first used in 1773 to describe ice, more the 130 years would have to go by before the laws of fluid mechanics were applied to ice. Even now, the parameter of Glen's law, which is used by glaciologists to model ice deformation, can take a very wide range of values, so that no unique ice flow law has yet been defined. To cite this article: F. Rémy, L. Testut, C. R. Geoscience 338 (2006).     

Appropriate Spatial Sampling of Rainfall or Flow Simulation/Echantillonnage Spatial de la Pluie Approprié pour la Simulation D'écoulements

Abstract

The objective of this study is to find the appropriate number and location of raingauges for a river basin for flow simulation by using statistical analyses and hydrological modelling. First, a statistical method is used to identify the appropriate number of raingauges. Herein the effect of the number of raingauges on the cross-correlation coefficient between areally averaged rainfall and discharge is investigated. Second, a lumped HBV model is used to investigate the effect of the number of raingauges on hydrological modelling performance. The Qingjiang River basin with 26 raingauges in China is used for a case study. The results show that both cross-correlation coefficient and modelling performance increase hyperbolically, and level off after five raingauges (therefore identified to be the appropriate number of rain-gauges) for this basin. The geographical locations of raingauges which give the best and worst hydrological modelling performance are identified, which shows that there is a strong dependence on the local geographical and climatic patterns.     

Influences of coupled wind–water processes on suspended sediment grain size: an example from tributaries of the Yellow River / Influences de processus couplés éoliens-hydriques sur la granulométrie des matières en suspension: exemple d'affluents du Fleuve Jaune

Abstract

Some unique coupled wind–water erosion processes exist in the desert-loess transitional zone in the middle Yellow River basin. Based on data from 40 stations on 29 rivers, a study was made on the influence of such processes on suspended sediment grain-size characteristics of the tributaries of the Yellow River. Results show that the percentage of >0.05-mm grain size decreases with the increased annual mean precipitation, but increases with the increase in the annual mean number of sand-dust storm days. The percentage of <0.01-mm grain size increases with the increase in the annual mean precipitation, but decreases with the increase in the annual number of sand-dust storm days. Based on annual mean data from 40 stations, multiple regression equations were established between the percentages of >0.05-mm grain size (r _>0.05) and <0.01-mm grain size (r _<0.01), annual mean precipitation (P _m) and annual mean number of sand-dust storm days (D _ss). On this basis, the relative contributions of the variations in D _ss and P _m to the variation in r _>0.05 and r _<0.01 were estimated. The results indicate that the variation in sand-dust storm frequency exerts greater influences on the variation in grain-size characteristics of suspended load than does the variation in annual mean precipitation. With the increase in the coupled wind–water processes index, expressed by P _m/D _ss, the percentage of >0.05-mm grain size in suspended sediment decreases and the percentage of <0.01-mm grain size increases. With the variation in P _m/D _ss, different combinations of r _>0.05 with r _<0.01 appear, which have some influence on the formation of hyperconcentrated flows. There exist some optimal ratios of coarse to fine fractions in suspended sediment that make sediment concentrations of hyperconcentrated flows the highest. The optimal r _>0.05/r _<0.01 value is related to some range of the index P _m/D _ss. When the P _m/D _ss index falls in this range, the optimum combination of relative coarse with fine sediments in the suspended load appears, and thus results in the peak values of sediment concentration.     

A revised approach to the UKIH method for the calculation of baseflow / Une approche améliorée de la méthode de l'UKIH pour le calcul de l'écoulement de base

Abstract

A revised approach to the calculation of baseflow using the method originally proposed by the United Kingdom Institute of Hydrology is presented. The revisions resolve two aspects of the method that lead to less than optimal results; that is, the calculation of values of baseflow that exceed the corresponding values of streamflow and the dependence of the calculated values on the origin of the five-day segmentation of the input streamflow data. The approach is illustrated using streamflow monitoring information that is typical for areas of southern Ontario, Canada, where baseflow is primarily the result of groundwater discharge.     

Identification of runoff generation processes using combined hydrometric,tracer and geophysical methods in a headwater catchment in South Africa / Identification des processus de génération de l'écoulement par combinaison de méthodes hydrométriques,de traçage et géophysiques dans un bassin versant sud-africain

Résumé

Des mesures hydrométriques classiques et l'imagerie 2-D de résistivité électrique (IRE) détaillée ont été combinées avec le prélèvement de traceurs pour identifier les processus hydrologiques en jeu dans un bassin versant semi-aride de la province Cap-Oriental, en Afrique du Sud. L'étude des événements de précipitation et d'écoulement a souligné la forte relation qui existe entre les précipitations et les caractéristiques de la génération des écoulements. L'observation du potentiel hydrique du sol ainsi que du niveau d'eau souterraine a mis en évidence le développement d'une nappe perchée dans le sol. Ces résultats sont confirmés par des séparations d'hydrogrammes à base de traceurs et illustrent le rôle important des écoulements souterrains superficiels. L'étude par IRE a permis de mieux connaître la structure du sous-sol. Finalement, l'étude par IRE, combinée avec des mesures obtenues par réflectométrie en domaine temporel (TDR), a permis d'extrapoler à des mesures sélectives de teneur en eau. Pour récapituler, l'utilisation et la combinaison de différentes méthodes de terrain ont mené au développement d'un modèle conceptuel du fonctionnement hydrologique de ce bassin versant. Le rôle dominant des mécanismes de subsurface a été démontré.     

煤田三维地震资料解释的时深转换方法研究

时深转换是三维地震资料解释中提高勘探精度非常关键的一步。本文介绍了三种不同的时深转换方法及时深转换速度的求取,并分别用实例加以说明,阐述了如何根据不同的地质及地震地质条件,选择合适的时深转换方法,以达到最佳的勘探效果。     

胶东半岛乳山地区低角度韧性剪切带几何学、运动学特征:对中国东部岩石圈减薄作用的启示

大规模伸展构造是华北克拉通东部岩石圈减薄的重要表现形式。部分低角度韧性剪切带是地壳伸展变形后所展现的构造形式。本文研究了王格庄韧性剪切带的岩石学、几何学、运动学等特征显示:韧性剪切带走向近南北向,剪切带断层面倾向多变(倾向西、西南、西北方向)。大部分区域面理低角度倾向西,矿物拉伸线理近东西向,不对称旋转碎斑及S-C组构指示顶端指向西的剪切特征。结合研究区西侧与伸展构造相匹配的半地堑伸展盆地证据:本研究认为伸展构造的形成可能与西太平洋板块的后撤相关,即大规模伸展构造作用引发了华北克拉通东部的地壳减薄作用。     

中国土壤湿度的时空变化特征

基于中国155个农业气象观测站1981-2010年逐旬土壤湿度资料,分析了全国和12个气候区域0~50 cm逐层的土壤湿度时空分布规律,采用趋势分析和Cramér-von Mises（CVM）方法探究了土壤湿度的变化趋势及突变性。结果表明：西南、江淮、东北、江南、江汉、黄淮和华南地区各层土壤湿度均高于全国平均值,内蒙古地区最低;随着深度增加,西南地区土壤湿度增加最明显,仅青藏高原地区土壤湿度减小。不同区域0~50 cm各层土壤湿度年变化和季节变化差异明显,并具有阶段性特征,大部地区深层土壤湿度高于浅层;总体上,新疆、华南、华北、青藏高原、东北、黄淮地区1981-2010年土壤湿度减小趋势显著,其中新疆地区减小最为明显。除江淮地区外,各区域土壤湿度均存在较为明显的年际差异,突变时段主要集中在20世纪80年代后期至90年代初期、90年代后期两个时间段。     

南天山区域大地构造与演化

塔里木和中天山之间的南天山造山带,经历了复杂的构造演化与地壳增生过程。综合分析南天山造山带的构造、地层、古生物、岩石、地球化学和同位素年代学等方面的资料,特别是放射虫、蛇绿岩、蓝片岩等方面的最新研究成果,讨论了南天山的区域构造格局和演化过程。南天山主体为一上百公里宽的增生-碰撞混杂带-南天山(蛇绿)混杂带;其北侧为中天山岛弧,是仰冲壳楔;南侧为塔里木陆块,是俯冲壳楔。古南天山洋为一广阔的大洋,南天山碰撞造山作用起始于二叠纪末-三叠纪初,新近纪-第四纪进入陆内造山作用阶段。     

东昆仑可支塔格蛇绿混杂岩的地质地球化学特征

东昆仑可支塔格蛇绿混杂岩属于木孜塔格-鲸鱼湖大断裂的西延部分,主要由辉橄岩、辉长岩、闪长岩、斜长花岗岩、辉绿岩、玄武岩及硅质岩等组成,形成时代为早石炭世。为构造强烈破坏的蛇绿混杂岩,形成于俯冲带环境,属SSZ型蛇绿岩。其中辉橄岩以相对低SiO2、TiO2、Al2O3和CaO、高MgO为特征,贫有色金属成矿元素,富集相容元素Cr、Ni、Co。稀土总量低,接近于球粒陨石稀土元素总量,以LREE略富集为特征。闪长岩SiO2、K2O含量较低,MgO、CaO、Na2O较高,稀土总量高,∑REE为90.95μg/g,LREE富集。斜长花岗岩SiO269.8%,Na2O>K2O,K2O/Na2O为0.78,A/CNK为1.68,具有大洋斜长花岗岩的岩石化学特征。闪长岩、斜长花岗岩的微量元素特征相似,表现为大离子亲石元素K、Sr、Rb、Ba相对富集,高场强元素Nb、Ta、Zr、Hf相对亏损。研究表明,辉橄岩来源于亏损的地幔岩,接近于强烈亏损的方辉橄榄岩,而明显不同于结晶分异作用成因的超镁铁质岩石。闪长岩、斜长花岗岩为蛇绿混杂岩的浅色岩组分,是地幔岩浆结晶分异的产物。