Recent explosive eruptions and volcano hazards at Soputan volcano—a basalt stratovolcano in north Sulawesi, Indonesia

Soputan is a high-alumina basalt stratovolcano located in the active North Sulawesi-Sangihe Islands magmatic arc. Although immediately adjacent to the still geothermally active Quaternary Tondono Caldera, Soputan’s magmas are geochemically distinct from those of the caldera and from other magmas in the arc. Unusual for a basalt volcano, Soputan produces summit lava domes and explosive eruptions with high-altitude ash plumes and pyroclastic flows—eight explosive eruptions during the period 2003–2011. Our field observations, remote sensing, gas emission, seismic, and petrologic analyses indicate that Soputan is an open-vent-type volcano that taps basalt magma derived from the arc-mantle wedge, accumulated and fractionated in a deep-crustal reservoir and transported slowly or staged at shallow levels prior to eruption. A combination of high phenocryst content, extensive microlite crystallization and separation of a gas phase at shallow levels results in a highly viscous basalt magma and explosive eruptive style. The open-vent structure and frequent eruptions indicate that Soputan will likely erupt again in the next decade, perhaps repeatedly. Explosive eruptions in the Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI) 2–3 range and lava dome growth are most probable, with a small chance of larger VEI 4 eruptions. A rapid ramp up in seismicity preceding the recent eruptions suggests that future eruptions may have no more than a few days of seismic warning. Risk to population in the region is currently greatest for villages located on the southern and western flanks of the volcano where flow deposits are directed by topography. In addition, Soputan’s explosive eruptions produce high-altitude ash clouds that pose a risk to air traffic in the region.     

Comparison of the biological NH3 removal characteristics of a three stage biofilter with a one stage biofilter

A three stage and a one-stage bench-scale biofilter with effective heights of 129 cm filled with same type of packing material were operated at different influent concentrations of ammonia in order to investigate their performance in treating waste gas streams. The columns contained a mixture of municipal compost inoculated with thickened municipal activated sludge as a base material and shredded hard plastic as a bulking agent in a 3:2 v/v ratio; the porosity, density and pH were 52 %, 0.65 and 7.2 respectively. Microbial acclimation to ammonia was achieved by exposing the three stage biofilter to an average inlet loading rate of 2.15g-NH₃/m³h and the one-stage to an average inlet loading rate of 1.32 g NH₃/m³h and an empty bed residence time of 60 s, for 10 days and 17 days respectively. Under steady-state condition, maximum elimination capacity (EC) was 9.85 g-NH₃/m³h at a loading rate of 9.86 g-NH₃/m³h for three-stage biofilter and 8.08 g NH₃/m³h at a loading rate of 8.13 g-NH₃/m³h for one-stage biofilter. The average pressure drop across biofilters bed was determined 33.76 Pa/m¹ in three-stage biofilter and 180.7 Pa/m¹ in one-stage biofilter. The three stage biofilter showed superior performance and gained more elimination capacity, shorter acclimation time, longer operation in steady-state condition and less pressure drop than one-stage biofilter.     

5种红树植物对Cu、Zn、Pb积累特征研究

大量研究表明红树植物对重金属具有一定的吸附功能。本研究选取东寨港红树林保护区为研究区域,选择不同年龄阶段的5种不同红树植物,分别是木榄(Bruguiera gymnorrhiza)、海莲(Brugui-era sexangula)、秋茄(Kandelia obovata)、角果木(Ceriops tagal)、桐花树(Aegiceras corniculatum),通过对不同类型、不同树龄阶段的红树植物组织(根、枝、叶)及其林下土壤样品的采集,分析测定样品中重金属元素Cu、Zn、Pb的含量,从而计算红树植物对土壤中重金属的富集系数,分析不同红树植物对重金属的吸附能力大小。结果表明:不同的植物类型及不同植物生长期对重金属吸附功能具有明显差异,其中大龄角果木表现为最大,小龄角果木次之,而中龄桐花树最小。不同植物组织中大龄角果木的根部对Cu的吸附能力最大,最小的是大龄木榄叶;对Zn的吸附能力最大的是小龄海莲枝,最小的是大龄木榄根;大龄角果木枝对Pb的吸附系数最大,中龄木榄根最小。总体而言,5种红树植物对重金属(Cu、Zn、Pb)的总吸附能力大小表现为:角果木>海莲>秋茄>桐花树>木榄,其中富集系数最大的角果木总值为5.8869,最小的木榄总值为2.4342。     

Confidence limits for silicate perovskite equations of state

We examine thermoelastic equations of state for silicate perovskite based on data from recent static compression studies. We analyze trade-offs among the fitting parameters and examine data sets for possible effects of metastability and of Mg-Fe solid solution. Significant differences are found between equations of state based on low pressure measurements obtained for perovskite outside of its stability field. Increasingly consistent results are obtained when higher pressure data are used, despite differences in the zero-pressure parameters used to describe the equations of state. The results highlight the importance of measuring the thermoelastic properties of perovskite at high pressure, specifically within its stability field, and the potential problems associated with large extrapolations of equations of state in the analysis of seismic data.     

On the cessation of seismicity at the base of the transition zone

Through a detailed analysis of seismicity at the base of the transition zone, we obtain an updated value of the maximum reliable depth of confirmed seismicity, we investigate regional variation in the maximum depth of seismicity among those Wadati-Benioff zones which reach the bottom of the transition zone, and we attempt to quantify the maximum possible rate of seismic release in the lower mantle compatible with the failure to detect even a single event since the advent of modern seismological networks. We classify deep subduction zones into three groups: those whose seismicity does not reach beyond 620 km, those whose seismicity appears to terminate around 650–660 km, and Tonga-Kermadec (and the Vityaz cluster) whose seismicity extends to 685–690 km. We suggest that the depth extent of seismicity is controlled by the depth of the pv + mw transition responsible for the 660-km seismic discontinuity, which is deflected to greater depths in cold slabs than in warmer ones. We note that this transition marks the depth below which thermal perturbation of phase transitions no longer generates buoyancy anomalies and their large attendant down-dip compressive stresses and below which strain energy generated by other mechanisms may not accumulate to seismogenic levels due to superplastic weakness in fine-grained materials. We find that the maximum level of seismic activity in the lower mantle must be at least three orders of magnitude less than that observed in the transition zone.     

Mutually consistent estimates of upper mantle composition from seismic velocity contrasts at 400 km depth

Seismologically determined properties of the 400 km discontinuity may be compared to experimentally determined properties of the associated phase transformation in order to place constraints upon upper mantle bulk composition. Disagreement among previous studies is commonly ascribed to differences in elastic equations of state (especially to assumptions about pressure and temperature derivatives) between studies. However, much of the disparity between studies is actually due to the selection of different seismic data functionals (P-wave velocity,S-wave velocity, etc.) for comparison to minnral clasticity calculations, rather than to the differences in elasticity data sets and equations of state. Within any given study, bulk sound velocity comparisons generally yield more olivine-rich compositional estimates than doP-wave velocity comparisons, which in turn indicate more olivine thanS-wave velocities. Indeed, such variation in compositional estimates within a given study (arising from choice of data functional) exceeds the variation between studies (arising from elastic equation of state approx mations). it can be argued that bulk sound velocities are better constrained seismologically than densities and, being independent of assumptions about shear moduli, should provide more reliable compositional estimates thanP-orS-wave velocities.Using recently measured bulk and shear moduli equations of state, mutually consistent estimates of upper mantle olivine content can be obtained fromP-wave,S-wave, and bulk sound velocity contrasts at 400 km only if ln /T of has a value of about–2×10^–4K^–1, yielding approximately 52% olivine by volume. A value of ln /T smaller in magnitude would require reassessment of several underlying assumptions.